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PREFACE 

Abundant  has  been  the  crop  of  niagazine  articles  and 
even  more  formal  treatises  on  the  Philippine  Islands 
since  our  war  with  Spain ;  yet  superabundant  liave 
been  the  showers  of  inquiries  which  the  writer  has 
encountered  time  and  again  since  his  return  from  the 
Islands,  in  connection  both  with  a  series  of  lectures 
recently  delivered  upon  the  subject  and  with  infonnal 
talks  from  time  to  time.  The  existence  of  so  much 
available  material  and  at  the  same  time  the  lack  of 
precise  information  concerning  the  Philippines  in  those 
who  show  a  real  interest  in  the  matter  have  by  the 
very  incompatibility  thus  suggested  engaged  his  atten- 
tion and  seemed  significant.  The  explanation  which 
alone  seems  possible,  assuming  that  the  interest  is  as 
sincere  and  active  as  he  has  been  led  to  believe,  is  that 
this  material  has  not  been  prepared  and  presented  in 
such  a  way  as  to  attract  the  ordinary  reader  and  enable 
him  easily  to  get  an  accurate  and  substantial  knowledge 
of  the  situation.    ' 

In  the  administration  of  his  duties  as  general  super- 
intendent of  education  the  writer  was  given  abun- 
dant opportunity  of  learning  the  actual  conditions  by 
visits  to  practically  every  part  of  the  archipelago,  by 
conferences,  interviews,  and  personal  association  with 


824465 


h 


IV  PREFACE 

prominent  Filipinos  and  naturally  with  American  offi- 
cials both  civil  and  military,  and  bj  correspondence 
with  assistants  in  every  part  of  the  field.  Furthermore, 
trips  to  such  countries  as  Java,  China,  Japan,  and  India 
have  aided  him,  by  the  possibility  of  comparison  thus 
afforded,  in  his  study  of  conditions  in  the  Philippines. 

To  present  the  results  of  this  observation  in  such  a 
way  as  to  give  an  accurate  and  comprehensive  idea  of 
just  what  our  Philippine  possessions  are;  to  show  the 
real  conditions,  geographical,  economic,  social,  and 
political;  to  picture  the  people  and  their  characteristics, 
the  different  phases  of  this  problem  of  tropical  coloni- 
zation,  the    possibilities  and    the    prospects,  —  such  is 

the  writer's  endeavor. 

FRED  W.  ATKINSON 

Brooklyn,  1905 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

Introduction 1 

I.    General  Geography 19 

II.    History 45 

III.  From   the   Death  ok    Lkcasti    through    the    Inter- 

vening Period  to  the  Uprising  of  1896  ....  63 

IV.  From    the  Insurrection    of   1896    to    the    Present 

Time 99 

V.    Climate 122 

Yl.    Public  Health 143 

VII.    Commercial  Geography 163 

VIII.    Manila 203 

IX.    People 227 

X.    People   (continued) 256 

XI.    People  (continued) 286 

XII.    Superstitions  and  Religion 296 

XIII.  Government 337 

XIV.  Education 373 

INDEX 413 


THE   PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


INTRODUCTION 

Of  the  few  countries  to-daj  where  the  old  order  still 
continues  with  but  slight  modification,  where  virgin 
fields  have  awaited  tlie  student  of  politics,  economics, 
sociology,  philology,  ethnology,  where  such  a  diversity 
of  conditions,  interests,  and  hinguages  exists  as  to  make 
the  problem  bewildering  in  the  infinity  of  its  phases, 
the  Philippine  Islands  are  among  the  foremost ;  while 
in  us  Americans  who  have  assumed  the  tutelage  of 
these  oriental  islanders,  who  have  taken  upon  ourselves 
the  solution  of  a  problem  that  is  unique,  this  general 
interest  becomes  merged  in  the  feeling  of  serious  respon- 
sibility which  rests  upon  us  for  the  ultimate  successful 
accomplishment  of  the  task. 

Opportunities  for  research  are  ample,  and  the  Insular 
Government  through  the  employment  of  experts  is 
carrying  on  many  lines  of  investigation,  the  result  of 
which  will  be  valuable.  What  the  conditions  were 
before  Spain's  influence  began  to  be  felt,  and  how  much 
the  Spaniards  did  for  the  Filipinos  it  is  difficult  to  say; 
it  depends,  as  all  things  Philippine  depend,  on  the  point 
of  view.    The  question  is  primarily  one  for  the  trained 


2  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

philologist,  who,  by  a  study  of  the  dialects  and  their 
acquisitions  from  the  Spanish  language,  may  learn 
much  concerning  the  early  history  and  customs  of  the 
Filipino  people.  It  was  of  absorbing  interest  to  the 
writer  while  there  in  the  Islands,  bearing  in  mind 
always  what  the  past  had  been,  to  watch  and  study 
the  kaleidoscopic  happenings,  and  to  speculate  on  what 
course  the  current  will  take  in  coming  years.  Such 
events  were  likewise  watched  with  a  similar  interest 
by  our  thoughtful  citizens  at  home,  who  were  supplied 
with  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  information, 
which  was  essentially  conflicting. 

There  seems  to  be  a  dearth  of  acciu^ate,  whole-truth 
information  on  the  Philippine  situation.  The  testi- 
mony of  an  army  officer  on  the  one  hand  and  that  of 
a  civil  official  on  the  other,  based  upon  different  points 
of  view  and  perhaps  a  knowledge  of  entirely  different 
parts  of  the  archipelago,  could  not  be  other  than  con- 
tradictory ;  and  similarly  with  any  reports  which  did 
not  first  look  beyond  the  immediate  vicinity  to  confirm 
impressions  there  gained,  for  the  inaccuracy  of  any 
such  information  varied  directly  with  the  distance  from 
the  particular  place  in  which  the  conditions  were  ob- 
served. In  short,  it  was  unsafe  to  note  the  existence  of 
any  peculiar  practice,  habit,  or  dialect  without  labeling 
it  with  the  exact  locality  where  found,  for  such  might 
be  but  a  far-removed,  modified  specimen  of  a  most 
diversified  family ;  and  the  error  lay  in  assuming  that 
to  be  the  generic  which  was  merely  the  specific,  —  an 


INTRODUCTION  3 

error  which  has  led  to  a  most  unfortunate  difference 
of  conceptions  as  to  what  the  problem  really  is,  and 
what  the  solution  ought  to  be. 

The  Philippines  should  not  properly  be  a  party  issue ; 
and  the  inclination  of  Americans  generally  to  refrain 
from  reviewing  the  story  of  our  acquisition  of  them, 
and  rather  to  center  their  attention  upon  the  one  pos- 
sible phase  of  the  question  oj)en  to  discussion,  —  the 
speed  with  which  we  can  grant  the  inhabitants  larger 
powers  of  self-government,  is  cause  for  a  feeling  of 
satisfaction.  The  Islands  are  a  part  of  our  country; 
as  a  nation  we  have  become  responsible  for  their 
external  relations  and  their  internal  administration. 
To  the  world,  to  the  Filipino  people,  and  to  ourselves 
we  have  a  duty  to  perform,  however  unpleasant  and 
unpalatable  it  may  be.  The  executive  department  of 
our  government  took  cognizance  of  this  duty  as  soon 
as  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  was  ratified  in 
February,  1899 ;  Congress  later  recognized  our  respon- 
sibility by  prescribing  a  form  of  government ;  and  our 
Supreme  Court  has  established  the  status  of  the  Islands 
as  a  part  of  the  United  States.  The  problem  is  thus 
larger  than  any  party ;  and  hence,  even  with  a  change 
of  party,  a  material  variation  from  our  present  policy 
would  not  be  possible.  In  facing  the  situation  to-day, 
thoughts  of  what  might  have  been  will  be  rather  a 
hindrance  than  a  help.  A  work,  the  very  immensity 
of  which  is  just  beginning  to  be  perceived  by  us,  has 
been  undertaken  without  any  prospect  of  immediate. 


4  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

satisfactory  completion  ;  but  it  is  our  task,  and  we  have 
made  an  encouraging  start. 

It  would  be  well,  indeed,  if  all  here  at  home  could  be 
led  to  join  in  the  opinion  of  Americans  in  the  Philip- 
pines, of  whatever  party,  that  democratic  principles  of 
government  must  be  considerably  modified  when  the 
people  to  be  governed  have  the  racial  qualities,  tradi- 
tions, and  history  of  the  Filipinos.  Unless  there  be  a 
unity  of  sentiment  among  the  American  people,  an  eager- 
ness of  spirit  to  solve  the  problem  in  the  best  possible 
way  with  the  sole  view  of  the  welfare  of  the  Filipino,  the 
experiment  now  inaugurated  will  fail.  The  difficulties 
of  the  problem  we  are  only  now  learning  to  appreciate ; 
until  the  conditions  are  better  known,  we  should  suspend 
judgment  and  certainly  be  less  prone  to  destructive 
criticism  of  the  pioneer  service  now  being  performed. 

No  amount  of  books,  magazine  articles,  and  lectures 
can  transport  the  American  at  home  to  the  Philippines, 
nor  adequately  supply  the  results  of  a  practical  acquaint- 
ance wdth  the  Islands.  It  is  impossible  for  our  legisla- 
tors in  Washington  who  have  not  been  on  the  ground 
to  realize  that  this  group  is  not  the  United  States  sim- 
ply a  few  centuries  younger ;  and  hence,  in  the  present 
discussion  of  the  question  of  independence,  comparisons 
with  conditions  which  existed  just  before  our  own  Revo- 
lutionary War  are  apt  to  be  misleading.  Vain  specula- 
tion without  knowledge  of  facts  is  useless ;  what  did 
happen  in  the  Philippines  could  not  have  been  pre- 
vented from  happening. 


I^^TRUDUCTIUX  5 

The  Filipinos  are  incapable  of  self-government ;  in 
their  affairs  they  are  managed  by  few  ambitious  leaders. 
They  have  not  yet  cultivated  a  sense  of  fair  play  and 
tolerance  for  those  who  differ  in  opinion.  Although  the 
gift  of  self-government  in  full  measure  was  not  possi- 
ble, yet  to  a  degree  it  was  bestowed  by  granting  prac- 
tical autonomy  in  provincial  and  municipal  affairs. 
Independence  is  a  cherished  ideal  of  the  Filipinos,  and 
that  they  may  ultimately  realize  this  ideal  is,  the  writer 
believes,  the  unexpressed  purpose  of  those  who  have 
undertaken  the  tutelage  of  these  peoples.  How  far 
removed  is  this  realization,  it  is  beyond  his  power  to 
predict ;  the  proximity  or  distance  of  it  must  remain 
a  matter  of  opinion.  Certainty  that  these  peoples  will 
or  will  not  become  an  independent  nation  is  equally 
out  of  the  question.  For  some  time  to  come  the  politi- 
cal dependence  of  the  Islands  upon  the  United  States 
must  be  very  real.  Granting  independence  in  any  near 
future  would  be  a  great  error  sure  to  result  in  serious 
harm ;  and  in  the  policy  of  not  attempting  to  fix  the 
day  when  the  connection  between  the  two  countries 
shall  be  merely  nominal,  we  are  pursuing  a  wise  course. 
The  doctrine  of  the  consent  of  the  governed  is  indeed  in- 
cluded in  our  scheme  of  administration  in  these  Islands 
to  the  fullest  extent  to  which  it  ever  laid  claim  in  the 
minds  of  those  who  first  propounded  it,  namely,  the 
granting  of  self-government  to  all  who  were  compe- 
tent to  exercise  it  for  their  own  Ijenefit  and  that  of  soci- 
ety.   The  question  of  the  right  of  a  liigher  civilization 


6  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

to  dominate  a  lower  is  one  capable  of  mncli  discnssion ; 
the  only  justification,  sureh',  for  such  an  extension  of 
sovereignty  is  the  material  improvement  and  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  elevation  of  the  weaker  race. 

The  United  States  Philippine  Commissioners  have 
erred,  if  in  any  direction,  in  giving  too  great  a  degree 
of  self-government  in  both  provincial  and  municipal 
affairs.  It  is  an  open  secret  that  they  went  farther 
in  bestowing  local  self-government  than  the  Filipino 
leaders  themselves  advised;  in  fact,  as  President  Roose- 
velt expressed  it  in  a  message,  they  reached  the  danger 
point.  Only,  indeed,  by  our  belief  that  the  privilege  of 
voting  is  in  itself  an  educative  force  in  the  state  and 
that  it  constantly  increases  the  self-respect  of  the  voter 
can  we  justify  the  establishment  of  the  present  form 
of  civil  government  in  the  Philippines. 

The  Filipino  people,  taken  as  a  body,  are  children 
and,  childlike,  do  not  know  what  is  best  for  them. 
That  they  possess  ideals  and  ideas  creates  a  faith  and 
a  hope  that  ultimately  they  may  be  able  to  institute  a 
republic  modeled  on  the  American  lines.  In  the  ideal 
spirit  of  preparing  them  for  the  work  of  governing 
themselves  finally,  their  American  guardianship  has 
begun.  Our  political  sway  has  not  been  imposed  upon 
the  people  to  any  greater  extent  than  was  necessary; 
and  by  the  very  fact  of  our  superiority  of  civilization 
and  our  greater  capacity  for  industrial  activity  we  are 
bound  to  exercise  over  them  a  profound  social  influ- 
ence.    In  speaking  of  the  future  of  this  country,  the 


INTRODUCTION 


one  thing  to  be  emphasized  throughout  is  that  all  de- 
pends upon  the  temper  we  exercise  in  the  work  wdiich 
is  mapped  out  for  us.  What  is  best  for  the  Filipinos  is 
the  foremost  consideration ;  and  this  desire  to  put  their 


The  Taft  Philippine  Commission 
Commissioner  Worcester  is  not  present 

interests  first  rather  than  to  foster  American  exploita- 
tion has  animated  the  United  States  Philippine  Com- 
mission in  all  its  legislative  and  administrative  acts. 

The  solution  of  the  Philippine  problem  is  in  the  hands 
of  men  of  large  and  generous  sympathies,  whose  abili- 
ties as  practical  statesmen  have  been  shown.  Governor 
Taft's  has  been  a  brilliant  career  in  which  success  is 
attributable  in  no  small  degree  to  a  personality  that 
won  the  love  and  admiration  of  the  natives  and  the 


8  THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

support  of  all  thoughtful  persous.  Besides  the  five 
Americans  ou  the  Commissiou  are  three  Filipino  mem- 
bers, who  from  the  beginning  have  been  left  free  to  do 
all  they  could  do  effectively.  The  details  of  the  organ- 
ization of  civil  government  will  be  taken  up  fully 
later ;  suffice  it  here  to  say  that  by  formulating  civil 
and  criminal  codes,  and  organizing  on  a  comj^rehen- 
sive  scale  departments  and  bureaus  of  government 
which  are  modern  and  efficient,  the  Commission  has 
done  much  in  the  matter  of  paving  the  way  to  ultimate 
success. 

As  a  result  of  our  general  policy  there  are  signs 
of  an  increased  friendliness  between  Americans  and 
Filipinos,  and  much  now  apjDears  in  the  situation  to 
create  a  feeling  of  cheerfulness.  Bitter  memories  of 
w^hat  has  been  naturall}^  still  exist ;  blood  has  been 
poured  out  and  money  contributed ;  and  there  are 
Filipinos  who  view  our  presence  with  a  feeling  of  dis- 
like, the  predominant  reason  for  which  is  the  natural 
idea  that  through  the  Americans  they  have  lost  an 
independence  all  but  attained.  Yet  there  is  reason  for 
sounding  a  cheerful  note  in  the  fact,  that  in  spite  of  all, 
the  large  body  of  the  people  tolerate  us  even  though 
somewhat  half-heartedlv ;  and  without  overrating  the 
intensity  and  permanence  of  the  manifestations  of  good 
will  which  have  greeted  our  efforts,  we  may  feel  that 
the  leading  Filipinos,  whether  from  expediency  or  real 
appreciation,  are  cooperating  with  the  Commissioners 
and  their  subordinates.    As  we   shall  see,  the   danger 


INTRODUCTION'  9 

lies  in  the  conservatism  of  these  people,  who  want  to 
do  as  they  have  always  done,  and  in  the  dissimilarity 
of  the  racial  qualities,  traditions,  history,  and  manners 
of  the  two  peoples. 

From  a  purely  scientific  point  of  view  the  experiment 
is  interesting  as  an  attempt  to  do  what  has  never  been 
done  before  with  an  oriental  race  of  Malay  origin  in 
the  tropics.  The  Filipinos  will  become  Americanized 
only  in  the  sense  that  they  will  speak  English  and 
adopt  American  innovations  as  they  are  introduced;  the 
character  of  the  people  and  their  stronger,  more  in- 
dividual characteristics  will  be  retained.  What  is  good 
in  Philippine  civilization  must  not  be  handled  roughly ; 
the  Filipino  himself  will  always  remain  such  as  he 
was  under  the  Latinizing  process  of  the  Spaniards. 
With  such  considerations  in  mind,  those  in  authority 
have  been  very  careful  not  to  go  too  far  in  the  attempt 
to  introduce  American  ideas  and  institutions,  in  spite  of 
the  demand  by  the  press  and  public  opinion  at  home 
for  a  wholesale  clearance  of  the  native  customs  and 
beliefs.  Sweeping  administrative  reforms  were  found 
necessary ;  yet  our  government  has  not  met  with  as 
much  to  change  that  is  Malay  as  that  which  is  Spanish. 
The  Commission  has  attempted  to  establish  a  firm  and 
strong  government  as  a  condition  precedent  to  the 
country's  political  future ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
has  interfered  just  as  little  as  possible  with  the  cus- 
toms, manners,  ceremonials,  and  beliefs  which  go  to 
make  up  the  individuality  of  a  people. 


10  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

For  nearly  five  years  now  our  government  has 
been  operating  a  free  pul)lic-scliool  system,  tlie  cardinal 
point  of  which  is  the  introduction  of  English,  which  the 
Filipino  wanted,  and  in  teaching  which  not  the  slightest 
attempt  has  been  made  to  stamp  out  any  of  the  native 
dialects.  Our  educational  efforts  have  possibly  done 
more  to  give  these  people  a  true  conception  of  the  bene- 
fits of  civilization  and  good  government  than  all  the 
other  influences  we  have  brought  to  bear  upon  them ; 
indeed,  in  tliis  work  is  to  be  found  the  solution  for  a 
large  part  of  the  problem.  Up  to  the  present  time  it 
has  hardly  advanced  beyond  the  teachings  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  English,  though  considerable  progress  is  now 
being  made  in  arithmetic,  geography,  and  the  other 
elementary  branches,  while  in  the  various  centers  work 
of  an  advanced  nature  is  carried  on.  Thus  popular 
education,  on  which  naturally  the  whole  structure  in 
this  field  must  ultimately  rest,  has  been  strengthened 
and  broadened,  steps  have  been  taken  in  the  direction 
of  higher  training,  and  for  tlie  future,  when  the  time 
is  ripe,  a  university  has  been  planned  as  an  apex  of 
the  school  system.  Among  the  greatest  difficulties  that 
the  promoters  of  free  education  have  to  contend  with 
are  the  ajjathy  of  the  lowest  class  and  the  antagonism 
of  the  liighest.  In  democratic  United  States  it  has  been 
possible  to  advance  popular  education  rapidly  during 
the  past  century  because  those  who  had  influence  were 
men  who  themselves  possessed  a  true  conception  of 
its  benefits   and  were  able  to  see  the  whole  question 


INTRODUCTION  11 

in  the  proper  perspective ;  in  the  Philippines  the  masses 
have  learned  little  else  than  the  catechism,  and  the 
higher  classes  have  acquired  hardly  more  than  a  veneer. 
Education  is  now  desired  apparently  with  the  greatest 
eagerness,  but  when  the  novelty  wears  off  and  hard 
work  is  required  the  attendance  decreases.  Through 
Spanish  misteaching  education  has  come  to  have  a  false 
meaning  there.  Scarcely  a  Filipino  understands  its 
significance ;  his  view  is  a  narrow,  social  one,  possibly 
tinged  with  ecclesiasticism.  To  turn  out  facile  penmen, 
glib  talkers,  or  formal  observers  of  the  faith  will  not 
satisfy  us.  For  the  present,  at  least,  a  purely  utilitarian 
view  of  education  must  be  accepted ;  yet  to  the  Ameri- 
can teacher  now  and  to  the  Filipino  reformer  of  the 
future  the  ideal  must  be  a  higher  one,  namely,  develop- 
ment of  physical  and  intellectual  powers,  formation  aud 
strengthening  of  moral  character,  widening  of  the  syui- 
pathies,  and,  incidentally,  preparation  for  citizenship. 
Frequently  in  the  jDress  of  the  Dutch  and  English  colo- 
nies of  the  Orient,  and  occasionally  in  our  American 
papers,  oj^inions  have  been  put  forth  to  the  effect  that 
the  institution  of  popular  education  in  the  Philippines 
is  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good,  and  that  the  peo- 
ple would  remain  better  and  happier  without  it.  With 
this  view  it  is  impossible  to  agree.  The  writer's  liking 
for  the  people  and  knowledge  of  their  character  arouses 
the  hope,  sincere  belief  in  the  ability,  tact,  and  courage 
of  the  American  teacher  creates  the  faith,  and  personal 
observation  and  judgment  confirm  in  him  the  conviction. 


12  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

that  the  popular  education  of  the  Filipino,  if  not  unduly 
hurried  and  if  conducted  along  practical  lines,  will  prove 
ah  ultimate  success. 

We  have  not  only  made  an  encouraging  start  in  gov- 
erning this  distant  group  of  sixteen  hundred  islands 
properly  and  efficiently  and  in  furnishing  an  adequate 
system  of  education,  but  we  have  already  attempted 
to  develop  then-  rich  resources.  The  economic  aspect 
of  the  question  is  by  no  means  the  least  interesting. 
Since  the  writer's  return,  the  question  whether  the 
Philippines  will  continue  a  great  expense  to  the  United 
States  without  any  corresponding  profit  has  l^een  fre- 
quently asked,  and  has  invariably  revealed  ignorance 
of  a  fact  which  was  supposed  to  be  generally  known, 
namely,  that  the  United  States  government  pays  only 
for  the  expenses  of  the  American  army  of  occupation 
and  the  Insular  Government  maintains  itself  from  its 
custom  and  revenue  receipts.  The  Islands  are  exceed- 
ingly fertile  and  productive,  and  yet  the  writer  must 
confess  that  he  is  not  optimistic  in  his  belief  that  the 
Philippines  will  immediately  pay  largely  in  a  commer- 
cial AN'ay.  This  question  depends  upon  many  factors. 
It  involves  a  labor  problem  of  exceeding  seriousness; 
the  prolmbility  of  American  colonization  in  the  Islands  ; 
the  investment  of  American  capital ;  the  need  of  new 
markets  for  American  products,  and  the  increase  of  Fil- 
ipino wants  ;  the  character  of  later  congressional  and 
insular  legislation  ;  the  development  of  means  of  land  and 
interisland  transportation ;  and  such  kindred  matters. 


INTRODUCTION  13 

Among  the  resources  timber  is  the  richest,  and  yet 
owing  to  the  condition  of  the  country,  the  difficulty  in 
getting  the  wood  out,  and  the  lack  of  labor,  nearly  all 
the  lumber  used  for  the  past  three  years  in  the  Islands 
has  been  Oregon  pine.  It  would,  indeed,  be  far  easier 
to  prove  to  an  academic  reformer  that  in  the  Philippines 
we  have  a  great  national  duty  to  observe  and  an  oppor- 
tunity for  individual  service  of  trying  pioneer  character, 
than  to  convince  a  practical  business  man  that  they  will 
pay.  The  wealth  of  this  rich  country  may  or  may  not 
under  American  enterprise  amount  to  as  much  as  san- 
guine Americans  think,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  it  is  being  governed  with  a  consciousness  of  the 
trust  which  has  been  assumed. 

By  accident  the  United  States  found  itself  in  the 
Philippines.  Can  any  one  question  the  advantage  of 
the  change  from  Spanish  domination  to  American  pro- 
tection ?  First  had  to  come  war  with  the  rifle,  then 
military  commission  with  the  rope,  and  finally  civil 
government  with  the  benefits  of  American  sovereignty, 
—  separation  of  church  and  state ;  division  and  coordi- 
nation of  judicial,  legislative,  and  executive  powers ; 
rights  of  suffrage,  writs  of  habeas  corpus,  assembly, 
and  free  speech ;  abrogation  of  obligatory  military 
service  and  abolition  of  the  practice  of  banishment. 
Spain  justified  her  conquest  here  only  on  religious 
grounds  and  failed  because  she  did  not  take  upon  her- 
self in  addition  just  that  moral  obligation  which  we 
have  accepted. 


14  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Thirty-nine  years  have  now  passed  since  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War  and  the  negro  problem  is  still  unsolved ; 
at  the  end  of  a  like  period  of  time  we  shall  be  strug- 
gling with  the  Philippine  question.  In  trying  to  solve 
it  we  must  leave  the  tune  element  out  of  consideration; 
and  we  shall  be  gravely  disajDpointed  if  we  do  not  look 
the  facts  in  the  face  and  thus  keep  from  building  our 
hopes  too  high.  This  is  not  sajang  that  we  must  be 
discouraged  or  that  we  have  not  done  much ;  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  real  difficulties  and  complexities 
will  show  us  how  much  has  really  been  accomplished. 
One  of  our  leading  thinkers  writes  of  American  civili- 
zation in  a  recent  work  :  ^  "  Our  people  are  too  imjDatient 
for  peerless  fruitage  from  tlie  slow-growing  tree  of  lib- 
erty ;  we  all  expect  sudden  miracles  of  material  and 
moral  welfare  —  we  get  only  a  slow  development  and 
a  halting  progress."  If  this  is  true,  how  much  less 
should  we  expect  in  the  way  of  fruitage  if  this  very 
tree  is  torn  up  and  transplanted  in  the  Philippines,  — 
a  foreign  soil  where  local  government  has  hardly  taken 
root,  and  where  the  sanctions  of  order  and  justice  which 
promote  industrial  development  are  scarcely  understood. 
It  is  a  huge  and  novel  work  —  this  training  some  six 
or  eight  millions  of  tropical,  indolent  people  for  self- 
government. 

Social  or  rather  political  trustworthiness,  respect  for 
the  minority,  and  freedom  from  everything  resembling 
castes  or  insurmountable  social  or  political  barriers  are 

^  President  Eliot,  More  Muney  for  the  Public  Schools,  p.  5G. 


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15 


16  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

requisite  conditions  for  a  democratic  form  of  govern- 
ment ;  and  these  are  lacking.  In  the  past  under  Span- 
ish domination  these  people  were  restricted  by  numerous 
social  limitations,  with  an  ecclesiastical  atmosphere  per- 
vading all.  In  our  work  we  must  assure  to  the  Filipino 
every\vhere  free  and  prompt  justice  and  security  of 
property  in  the  interior,  and  must  instill  in  him  such 
moral  restraint  and  ideal  standards  as  will  help  him 
through  the  perils  of  an  unknown  freedom. 

Although  it  is  impossible  in  a  day  or  in  a  generation 
even  to  enable  these  peojDle  to  raise  themselves  from 
the  condition  of  semicivilization  to  the  rank  of  a  civ- 
ilized nation,  the  difficulties  of  our  task  are  not  insu- 
perable. The  question  is  a  national  one,  and  to  the 
extent  of  his  opportunities  every  citizen  should  do  his 
part  in  assisting  by  encouragement  those  to  whom  has 
been  assigned  this  difficult  pioneer  service.  To  judge 
intelligently  the  results,  one  needs  to  be  acquainted 
wdth  the  situation ;  to  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  cli- 
mate and  other  geographical  conditions,  especially  their 
influence  on  Philippine  character  and  civilization ;  to 
be  acquainted  with  the  history  and  life  of  the  different 
peoples ;  and  to  know  the  ethnological  constitution  of 
the  Islands.  A  clearer  understanding  of  certain  elements 
of  native  character  also  will  lead  to  saner  expectations 
as  to  the  results  of  the  American  protectorate.  Unless 
we  inform  ourselves  on  these  matters,  there  is  bound  to 
be  disappointment  in  the  future.  And  yet  how  is  the 
person  at   home   to   obtain   this  clearer  understanding 


INTRODUCTION  17 

from  the  mass  of  conflicting  opinions  which  he  hears  ? 
This  is  a  difficult  question  to  answer.  To  one  the  Fili- 
pino is  almost  inhuman,  detestable  in  his  cold-blooded 
warfare;  to  another  he  appears  Western-wise,  child- 
like, gentle.  A  maze  of  contradiction  is  encountered 
by  one  who  studies  the  Filipinos.  To  one  man  our 
endeavor  to  govern  and  educate  him  is  to  oppress 
him,  to  uncreate  him ;  to  another  it  is  to  teacli  him 
really  to  live. 

With  a  view  toward  helping  to  gain  this  better 
understanding  of  the  true  situation  these  chapters 
are  written.  The  plan  of  presentation  is  what  has 
seemed  to  the  writer  simple  and  natural :  first,  a  con- 
sideration of  the  general  geography,  treating  of  the 
location,  size,  and  physical  features  of  the  various 
islands,  mountain  and  river  systems,  volcanoes  and 
earthquakes ;  and  next,  such  a  treatment  of  the  dis- 
covery, settlement,  and  history  of  the  Islands  as  to 
give  a  background  of  information  sufficiently  substan- 
tial for  a  proper  setting  for  later  developments.  Then 
follows  a  consideration  of  these  later  developments, — the 
end  of  Spanish  dominion,  the  beginning  of  American 
rule,  and  events  under  American  sovereignty  to  date ; 
a  discussion  of  the  commercial  geography,  products, 
resources,  and  possibilities ;  of  the  climate,  meteoro- 
logical conditions,  and  storms ;  the  question  of  public 
health ;  and  a  description  of  Manila  itself.  Attention 
is  later  directed  to  a  study  of  the  people,  their  charac- 
teristics and  capacities,  their  superstitions  and  religion ; 


18  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

an  examination  is  made  into  the  former  method  of 
government  and  administration,  native  and  Spanish, 
together  with  a  survey  of  our  own  work  of  establishing 
and  operating  tlie  present  systems,  insular,  provincial, 
and  municipal ;  and  finally,  an  account  is  given  of  the 
educational  work,  the  justification  for  introducing  Eng- 
lish, the  kind  of  training  needed,  the  results  and  pros- 
pects, with  a  concluding  estimate  of  what  we  have 
already  done  and  w^hat  the  outlook  is. 


CHAPTER  I 
GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 

This  group  of  more  than  sixteen  hundred  islands 
forming  the  Philippine  archipelago  is  situated  almost 
precisely  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe  to  our  Atlantic 
coast,  eleven  thousand  miles  distant  from  and  thirteen 
hours  four  minutes  earlier  than  New  York,  southwest 
of  Japan  and  Korea,  some  six  hundred  miles  southeast 
of  China,  and  a  few  miles  northeast  of  Borneo.  It  is 
washed  on  the  north  and  west  by  the  China  sea,  on  the 
east  by  the  Pacific,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Celebes  sea. 
With  its  southern  extremity  less  than  5°  and  its  north- 
ern limit  21°  north  of  the  equator,  it  is  situated  wholly 
within  the  tropics  and  extends  some  eleven  hundred 
miles  over  a  latitudinal  expanse  equal  to  that  between 
the  southern  shore  of  lake  Superior  and  the  northern 
coast  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  while  the  extreme  breadth, 
between  116°  and  126°  east,  nearly  seven  hundred  miles, 
is  greater  than  the  longitudinal  distance  between  Phil- 
adelphia and  Indianapolis. 

The  total  area  is  127,853  square  miles,  seven  thousand 
square  miles  greater  than  that  of  the  British  Isles ;  or, 
to  use  an  American  standard,  larger  than  the  combined 
areas  of  the  New  England  states  with  New  York  and 

19 


20 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


New  Jersey.  And  taken  together  with  the  waters  which 
surround  and  are  included  within  the  treaty  lines  of 
boundary,  the  Islands  extend  over  a  space  embracing 
roughly  800,000   square   miles   of   the  earth's  surface. 


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rillLll'I'INK     \  KCKTATIOX 

Of  the  total  land  area  it  is  computed  that  tlie  combined 
extent  of  1583  of  the  1600  islands  is  less  than  GOOO 
square  miles,  thus  leaving  almost  the  entire  land  por- 
tion distributed  among  the  comparatively  few  large 
islands.  Beginning  at  the  north,  the  eleven  islands 
with  an  area  of  1000  square  miles  or  more  are  Luzon 
(43,075),  Mindoro  (4050),  Masbate  (3872),  Samar  (5198), 
Panay  (4752),  Leyte  (3872),  Palawan  (4839),  Negros 
(4839),  Cebu  (1688),  Bohol  (1400),  Mindanao  (45,559). 
Mindanao  is  a  little  larger,  and  Luzon  a  little  smaller, 
than  Pennsylvania  ;  Samar,  Negros,  Panay,  and  Pala- 
wan are  each  about  tlie  size  of  Connecticut ;  Mindoro, 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY 


21 


Masbate,  and  Leyte  are  each  of  the  same  area  as  Porto 
Rico;  while  the  remaining  two,  Bohol  and  Cebu,  are 
each  the  size  of  Rhode  IsUind. 

The  country  is  everywhere  very  mountainous,  the 
chief  ranges  running  along  the  greater  axis  of  each 
island,  generally  speaking,  with  several  arms  ])ranching 
therefrom.  Thus  their  general  direction  is  from  north 
to  south,  with  more  or  less  inclination  to  the  east  or 
west,  according  to  the  general  direction  of  the  largest 
islands  of  the  archipelago. 

The  mountain  system  of  Luzon  comprises  principally 
three  large  ranges,  the  nucleus  of  which  is  the  Caraballo 


C'ocoANrr  (iiv<)\  I. 


Sur.  They  are  (1)  Caraballos  Occidentales,  which  form 
the  Pacific-China  sea  watershed  of  northern  Luzon  and 
extend  north  for  a  distance  of  about  150  miles,  dividing 


22  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

into  two  branches,  the  Cordillera  Central  and  Cordillera 
Norte,  the  northernmost  peak  of  which,  Mt.  Irada  in 
the  Babuyan  island,  is  only  ninety-three  miles  from 
Formosa ;  (2)  Sierra  Madre,  or  Pacific  coast  range,  which 
forms  a  continuous  chain  of  mountains  from  the  Cara- 
ballos  de  Baler  to  cape  Engailo,  the  extreme  northeast- 
ern point  of  Luzon,  and  is  the  longest  continuous  range 
in  the  archipelago ;  (3)  and  a  third  range  starting  from 
the  common  point,  the  Caraballos  Sur,  and  extending 
south,  one  branch  traversing  Tayabas  province,  the 
other  the  provinces  of  Camarines,  Albay,  and  Sorsogon, 
and  terminating  in  the  spurs  of  the  volcano  of  Bulusan. 

Besides  these  three  principal  ones  are  two  other 
ranges  worthy  of  mention,  —  the  Zambales  range, 
which,  starting  at  cape  Bolinao,  the  extreme  north- 
west point  of  Luzon,  follows  closely  the  China  sea 
coast  to  the  end  of  the  Bataan  peninsula,  fronting  Cor- 
regidor,  the  promontory  at  the  entrance  of  Manila  bay ; 
and  the  Tagaytay  range,  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  Cavite  and  Batangas  provinces  and  contains 
the  Taal  volcano. 

While  the  larger  islands  have  defined  systems  of 
their  own,  these  are  brought  by  means  of  submarine 
ranges  into  harmony  with  the  general  scheme  of  the 
archipelago.  The  mountains  of  Marinduque,  Burias, 
Masbate,  Romblon,  and  Ticao  are  simjjly  elevated  por- 
tions of  the  hidden  ranges  connecting  Luzon  with  the 
systems  of  the  Visayan  grouj^  of  islands,  including 
Panay,  Negros,  Cebii,  Leyte,  and  Sttmar,  which  in  turn 


23 


24  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

are  continued  in  the  lofty  Cordilleras  of  Mindanao  to  the 
southeast,  and  with  less  elevation  in  the  hills  of  Basilan 
and  the  larger  islands  of  the  Sulu  archipelago  to  the 
southwest.  From  Luzon,  too,  through  Mindoro,  the 
Calamianes,  and  the  long  narrow  island  of  Palawan, 
extends  another  system,  terminating  with  the  peak 
of  Bahil)ac  in  the  Sierra  Empinada  in  the  extreme 
northwestern  part  of  our  possessions,  less  than  fifty 
miles  distant  from  the  northernmost  point  of  Borneo. 

The  island  of  Panay  has  a  single  range  extending 
from  the  northern  to  the  southern  coast,  separating  the 
province  of  Antique  from  Capiz  and  Iloilo  and  reaching 
an  altitude  of  more  than  seven  thousand  feet.  About 
midway  it  sends  a  spur  to  the  east  which  forms  the 
boundary  between  Capiz  and  Iloilo.  Various  peaks  of  an 
elevation  of  four  thousand  feet  and  upwards  are  to  be 
found  in  this  chain. 

Negros  is  traversed  by  a  high  range  from  the  north- 
west to  southeast,  dividing  it  into  two  parts  so  com- 
pletely as  to  form  naturally  two  narrow  provinces.  In 
this  system  the  volcano  Canlaon  or  Malaspina  is  a 
conspicuous  feature. 

Cebu  has  a  spinelike  chain  similar  to  that  of  Negros, 
almost  parallel  to  it,  and  dividing  the  island  likewise 
into  the  eastern  and  western  halves. 

Bohol  has  no  single  well-defined  range,  but  several 
short  ones  traversing  the  island  from  the  northeast  to 
the  southwest  and  giving  a  general  mountainous  char- 
acter to  the  surface. 


Tropical  Vegetation  ox  the  Tagsaxjan  Kiver 


25 


26  THE  PHlLirri^E   ISLANDS 

Leyte  and  Siiniar  are  traversed  similarly  b}^  ranges, 
continuations  of  the  system  of  southern  Luzon,  running 
the  length  of  the  islands  from  northwest  to  southeast, 
with  numerous  spurs  sent  off  on  both  sides,  making  the 
land  surface  distinctly  a  broken  one. 

The  system  of  Mindanao  comprises  four  distinct 
chains :  the  eastern  in  Surigao,  which  forms  a  Pacific 
coast  range  running  the  entire  length  of  the  island  ;  the 
central  eastern,  which  extends  north  from  Butuan  and 
constitutes  the  watershed  of  the  great  river  systems  of 
Agusan  on  the  east  and  Pulangui  on  the  west,  and  is  the 
l)oundary  between  Surigao  and  the  provinces  of  Misamis 
and  Lanao  ;  the  central  western,  which  branches  from 
the  latter  range  at  the  lofty  volcano  of  Apo,  10,312 
feet  high,  and,  following  the  northern  boundary  of  Cota- 
bato  proA'ince  from  southeast  to  northwest,  intersects 
the  western  range  and  travels  the  entire  length  of  the 
Zamboanga  peninsula  to  the  Basilan  strait,  where  it 
ends,  to  rise  again  in  the  larger  islands  of  Sulu ;  and, 
lastly,  the  western,  which  starts  at  the  head  of  Iligan 
bay  on  the  north  and,  cutting  across  the  island  to  the 
south,  traverses  the  peninsula  inclosing  1  liana  l)ay. 

The  Philippines,  it  is  worthy  of  note,  are  united  with 
the  Asiatic  archipelago  at  three  different  points  where 
the  straits  filled  with  islands  reach  but  little  depth, 
namely,  north  of  Borneo  by  the  islands  of  Balabac  and 
Palawan,  on  the  northeast  of  Borneo  by  the  island  of 
Jolo,  and  on  the  northeast  of  the  Celebes  by  the  islands 
of  Sanquin  and  Tahit.     The  whole  Philippine  group. 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY  27 

without  doubt,  therefore,  belongs  to  the  same  geograph- 
ical region  as  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  other 
members  of  this  extensive  archipelago,  and  hence  to  Asia 
rather  than  to  Oceanica.  In  bearing  out  this  view,  the 
analogy  between  the  situation  of  the  Sunda  islands,  the 
Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  and  the  Philippines  with  reference 
to  Asia,  and  that  of  the  Antilles  to  America,  is  evident. 


Banyan  Tree 

The  unique  connection  that  exists  between  the  various 
islands  w^hich  lie  in  the  waters  separating  Asia  and 
Australasia  has  been  shown  by  a  writer  who  has  treated 
the  subject  in  a  most  interesting  manner.^  The  greater 
part  of  the  Philippines,  as  is  true  of  Java  and  other 
islands  of  this  general  group,  has  been  formed  by  vol- 
canic action;    and  a  semielliptical  volcanic  belt   may 

1  Wallace,  Malay  Archipelago,  Chap.  I. 


28 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


be  traced  in  this  Asiatic  archipelago,  passing  tlirongh 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  neighboring  area,  and  then 
up  through  the  Philippines.  These  tropical  islands  of 
volcanic  origin  all  enjoy  a  uniform  and  very  similar 
climate,  are  covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  are 
subject  to  earthquakes,  which  recur  continually  with 
slight  shocks  at  intervals  of  a  few  weeks  or  months, 


On  the  Imus  River 

and  more  severe  ones,  shaking  down  whole  villages 
and  destroying  life  and  property,  sure  to  liappen  in 
some  part  of  the  volcanic  belt  during  the  year.  The 
Philippines,  which  agree  in  many  respects  with  Asia 
and  the  Asiatic  archipelago,  present  on  the  other  hand 
certain  anomalies  which  seem  to  indicate  that  they 
were  separated  from  the  mainland  at  an  early  period 
and  have  since  become  subject  to  various  revolutions  in 
their  physical  geography. 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY 


29 


Nowhere  is  there  a  more  interesting,  ahiiost  entirely 
unexplored  field  for  the  geologist  than  here.  Judgino- 
from  the  distribution  of  igneous  rocks  in  the  archi- 
pelago, volcanoes  dynamically  powerful  have  exercised 
a  marked  influence.  As  to  the  number  of  them  there 
is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion,  some  putting  it  as 


A  Country  Road  near  Dagupax 


high  as  fifty,  —  twenty  of  which  are  more  or  less  active, 
and  thirty  extinct  and  dormant.  But  in  the  absence 
of  data  from  accurate  surveys,  it  seems  wise  to  accept 
the  more  conservative  estimate  of  the  Jesuit  fathers 
connected  with  that  admirable  institution,  the  Manila 
Observatory,  now  the  seat  of  the  Philippine  Weather 
Bureau,  who  state  that  there  are  twenty-three  volcanoes 
in  the  group,  eleven  of  them  more  or  less  active. 


30  THE   nilLlPPlXE   ISLANDS 

In  the  islands  north  of  Luzon  arid  only  a  short  dis- 
tance south  of  Formosa,  are  two  active  volcanoes,  which 
are  known  among  mariners  and  natives  as  "  smoking 
mountains";  and  similarly  named  is  the  well-defined 
cone  near  cape  Engaiio,  the  extreme  northeastern  point 
of  Luzon,  which,  however,  has  not  been  observed 
smoking  since  1860.  Farther  south,  near  Manila,  is  the 
symmetrically  conical  Arayat,  now  dormant,  in  sight  of 
which  most  of  the  Philippine  insurrections  took  place  ; 
and  the  magnificent  Banajao,  also  dormant,  which  looms 
uf)  over  the  lake  of  Bay ;  and  still  farther  south,  in 
the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  the  island,  is  Bulusan, 
the  culmination  of  the  third  great  mountain  range  of 
Luzon,  a  second  Vesuvius  with  its  double  cone.  The  two 
most  important  active  volcanoes  in  the  island  remain, 
—  Mayon,  in  Albay  province,  just  north  of  Bulusan  and 
in  the  same  range,  and  Taal,  situated  in  lake  Bombon 
in  the  Tagaytay  system,  readily  accessible  from  Manila. 
Mayon  is  the  most  beautiful  specimen  of  the  volcanic 
cone  on  a  large  scale  that  it  has  ever  been  the  writer's 
privilege  to  see ;  it  is  the  realization  of  that  ideal 
schoolboy  conception  of  what  a  volcano  ought  to  be,  as 
it  rises  majestically  with  perfect  symmetry  from  the 
center  of  a  great  plane  to  the  height  of  nine  thousand 
feet,  its  lofty  crater  enveloped  in  and  covered  by  a 
great  cloud  of  vapor.  Frequent  emissions  of  ashes 
accompanied  l)y  lava  flows  occur,  and  the  eruptions 
with  severe  shocks  associated  with  them  at  times  liave 
been  very  serious.    One  of  deadly  character  took  place 


31 


32 


THE  PIULirPlXE  ISLANDS 


in  1814,  which  buried  practically  whole  towns  under  its 
streams  of  lava  and  ashes,  and  destroyed  twelve  hun- 
dred lives.  During  the  last  decade  of  the  preceding 
century  there  were  light  eruptions;  and  in  June,  1897, 
a  violent  eruption  lasting  twenty-four  hours  caused  the 
loss  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  lives  and  unich  property. 


Largest  Cuatkr,  Taal  Volcano 

Taal  is  also  remarkable,  with  its  once  comparatively 
large  crater  and  several  other  small  extinct  ones  near 
by,  forming  in  the  lake  an  island  of  some  two  hundred 
and  twenty  square  miles.  The  crater  is  o\al  in  form 
with  a  major  axis  of  a  mile  and  a  lialf ;  its  walls  are 
steep,  and  on  the  crater  floor  are  several  small  cones, 
only  one  of  which,  however,  is  active,  and  this  simply 


GENERAL  GEUGKAPHY  33 

to  the  extent  of  emitting  great  quantities  of  vapor. 
There  are  within  the  crater  also  three  boilina;  lakes  con- 
taining  metallic  oxides  and  salts  in  solution,  which  give 
to  the  waters  of  the  smaller  lakes  a  pure  emerald  green 
color,  and  to  those  of  the  larger  a  reddish-yellow  tint. 
Though  this  volcano  has  been  in  an  active  state  from 
time  immemorial,  no  serious  eruption  has  occurred  since 
1754. 

Concerning  the  remaining  volcanoes  little  is  known. 
Mt.  Apo  in  Mindanao,  which  towers  to  a  height  of  ten 
thousand  feet  or  more,  gives  evidence  of  its  activity  by 
numerous  jets  of  sulphurous  vapors  that  tower  cloudlike 
over  the  summit.  Its  name,  Apo,  signifies  in  the  Tagalog 
language  both  air  and  God,  and  its  appearance  besjDeaks 
the  real  appropriateness  of  such  an  appellation.  Very 
few  have  ever  ascended  it ;  ^  and  among  the  difficulties  in 
attempting  an  ascent  is  tlie  unwillingness  of  the  natives 
to  act  as  guides,  for  they  believe  it  is  the  abode  of  an 
evil  spirit. 

Seismology  is  a  subject  of  very  special  interest  in 
the  Philippines  and  one  that  has  received  during  the 
past  twenty  years  careful  attention  at  the  hands  of 
the  Jesuits  connected  with  the  Observatory;  the  result 
of  which  systematic  study  has  been  tlie  collection  of  a 
large  amount  of  suggestive  and  valuable  scientific  data 
on  this  matter  of  earthquakes.    Certain  laws  as  to  the 


1  A  Frenchman  in  1880,  two  German  scientists  in  1882,  an  Englishman  in 
1884,  and  two  Americans  in  1900  have,  it  seems,  been  the  only  white  people 
to  make  the  ascent. 


34  THE  PIIILIPPINP:   ISLANDS 

modification  of  the  direction  in  wliicli  seismological  dis- 
turbances travel  as  the  result  of  local  peculiarities  of 
conformation  have  been  deduced ;  the  influence  particu- 
larly of  mountain  ranges  has  been  shown,  and  the  results 
of  other  observers  engaged  in  the  same  work  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  confirmed.  Under  American  rule  this 
study  has  been  officially  recognized,  provision  has  been 
made  for  better  instruments,  and  some  ninety  official 
earth(|uake  stations  have  been  established. 

Manila  is  so  situated  that  it  experiences  almost  all  the 
shocks  radiating  from  the  different  centers  of  Luzon, 
being  no  more  than  thirty-five  miles  north  of  the  active 
volcano  Taal  and  a  little  farther  from  the  extiuct  ones, 
Banajao  and  Arayat.  The  ground  of  the  capital  is  low 
and  soft  and,  in  addition  to  the  Pasig  river,  traversed 
by  a  network  of  creeks  or  cstei^os.  The  total  number 
of  earthquakes  registered  there  during  the  eighteen 
years  between  1880  and  1897  is  two  hundred  and 
twenty-one,  an  average  annual  number  of  twelve.  The 
most  serious  one  within  the  previous  century  occurred 
in  1863,  the  shock  of  which  lasted  half  a  minute,  and 
by  the  falling  buildings  caused  four  hundred  deaths  and 
injuries  to  two  thousand  others.  The  ruins  from  this 
and  other  earthquakes  are  still  to  be  seen  within  the  city. 

For  the  purpose  of  the  seismo-meteorological  service 
now  organized  under  our  government  the  archipelago 
is  divided  into  four  districts. 

The  first  includes  Luzon,  except  the  southern  prov- 
inces, and  Mindoro,  and  may  be  characterized  as  the 


(ioKUK    OX    THE     PaG^AXIAN    KiVER 


36  THE  riiiLipriNE  islands 

Taal  district.  This  region  was  visited  by  many  destruc- 
tive eartliqnakes  in  the  seventeenth  century,  one  histing 
for  the  extraordinary  period  of  seven  minutes.  In  1G45 
a  severe  earthquake  laid  ahnost  the  entire  city  of  Manila 
in  ruins ;  and  a  subsecpient  one  in  1658  destroyed  those 
buildings  which  survived  the  preceding  shock.  During 
the  eighteenth  century  several  churches  were  thrown 
down ;  and  cracks  in  the  walls  surrounding  old  Manila, 
caused  by  these  disturbances,  may  still  be  seen.  In  the 
last  century,  previous  to  the  active  period  of  1880-1897, 
already  mentioned,  there  were  several  isolated  disturb- 
ances, one  in  1851^  particularly  serious,  which  did  great 
damage  throughout  Luzon.  A  point  of  interest  is  that 
nearly  all  of  these  accompanied  eruptions  of  Taal 
volcano. 

The  second  district  includes  the  southern  provinces 
of  Luzon,  certain  adjacent  islands,  Masbate,  and  the 
northern  part  of  Samar,  and  may  be  characterized  as 
the  Mayon  district.  Here  are  grouped  nearly  all  of  the 
most  important  seismic  centers  of  the  archipelago,  and 
here,  too,  have  occurred  numerous  serious  disturbances. 

Tlie  tliird  district  comprises  the  islands  of  Negros 
and  Panay  and  the  western  part  of  Mindanao.  Com- 
paratively few  earthquakes  have  occurred  in  this  region. 

The  fourth  district  embraces  the  southern  part  of 
Siimar,  tlie  islands  of  Leyte,  Cebu,  Bohol,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Mindanao,  and  may  be  designated  as 
the  A])o  district,  though  there  are  various  other  vol- 
canic centers  in  this  reo-ion.    Numerous  destructive  and 


37 


38 


TTTE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


\\  ATi:i;i"Ai.i.s,  Luzon 

violent  shocks  have  occurred  here  at  various  times,  but 
accurate  data,  particulai-ly  as  to  the  Mindanao  portion, 
are  lacking. 

As  we  should  expect  to  find  in  a  country  of  volcanic 
origin,  the  islands  abound  in  mineral  springs,  the  waters 
being  medicinal  in  character  and  ranging  in  temperature 


ge:n^eiial  geography 


39 


from  cold  through  various  intermediate  degrees  to 
boiHng.  By  the  deposits  upon  the  rock  surfaces  adjoin- 
ing, evidence  is  to  be  had  of  the  existence  of  iron, 
copper,  and  other  minerals  in  solution  in  these  springs. 
The  best  known,  perhaps,  are  Los  Banos,  on  the  lake 
of  Bay,  close  to  Manila,  an  analysis  of  the  waters  of 
which  shows  the  composition  to  be  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  Carlsbad  products. 

To  understand  the  rough  mountainous  character  of 
the  interior  of  most  of  the  larger  islands  is  of  prime 
importance  in   paving  the  way  toward  an  intelligent 


A  River  Caxyox 


discussion  of  the  physical  aspects  of  the  Philippines, 
and  particularly  of  the  political  and  industrial  phases, 
for  these  rugged  natural  features  have  taken  an  impor- 
tant part  in  creating  conditions  which  have  exercised 


■iO 


THP:  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


a  direct  and  i)Owerful  influence  upon  the  very  life  of 
these  Filipino  peo})lG.  But  there  are  also  broad  plains, 
narrow  valleys,  and  swamps,  through  all  of  which 
innumerable  streams  take  their  course.     In  a  tropical 

country  where  roads  are 
expensive  to  build  and 
more  so  to  maintain,  on 
account  of  the  heavy  rain- 
fall, the  ^vater  courses 
form  the  highways  of 
commerce.  Yet  few  of 
the  rivers  here  are  navi- 
gable by  seagoing  vessels ; 


others  can  be  used  by 
smaller  craft  only  during 
the  rainy  season,  when 
there  is  sufficient  water ; 
and  others  again  merely 
in  the  dry  season,  when 
they  have  ceased  being 
torrents. 

Four  principal  river 
ALONr,  TiiK  (.ovKKNMENT  RoAi)      systcuis  cffcct  thc  dralu- 

TO    BeXGUET  £     X  ^ 

ao;e  ot  Luzon : 
The  Cagayan,  which  has  its  source  in  the  south  Cara- 
ballo  mountains  in  the  center  of  the  island  and,  running 
in  a  tortuous  stream  to  the  northern  coast,  drains  with 
its  tributaries  the  entire  northeastern  half  of  the  island, 
an   area  of  sixteen  thousand  square  miles,  —  equal   to 


I 


41 


42 


THE  PHILIPPIXE  ISLANDS 


that  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 
Like  the  Nile,  this  river  overflows  its  banks  annually, 
thus  fertilizing  tlie  Cagayjin  valley  and  making  it  the 


Kick  Tekkaces 

richest  to])acco  district  in  the  Philippines ;  yet  the  sand 
shoals  at  the  mouth,  constantlv  shifting,  frequently  close 
the  entrance  to  navigation. 

The  Agno,  which  rises  in  a  mountainous  range  nearer 
the  west  coast  and  some  fifty  miles  from  the  source  of 
the  Cagayan,  drains  the  narrow  intermountain  areas  of 
Benguet  and  the  central  valle^^s  of  Nueva  Ecija,  Pan- 
gasinan,  and  Tarlac,  and  empties  by  two  mouths  into 
the  gulf  of  Lingayen. 

The  Al)ra,  which  starts  in  the  Cordilleras  of  Lepanto- 
Bontoc  and  Abra,  courses  across  the  narrow  intervening 
strip  of  Ilocos  Sur  to  empty  into  the  China  sea. 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY 


43 


The  Pampanga,  which  has  its  beginning  in  the  same 
range  as  the  Cagayan,  flows  in  the  opposite  direction, 
northward,  through  an  extensive  fertile  plain  dotted 
with  populous  villages,  and  empties  by  some  twenty 
mouths  into  Manila  bay. 

The  island  of  Luzon  is  further  drained  by  the  lake 
of  Bay,  which  has  its  sea  outlet  through  the  Pasig  to 
Manila  bay. 

Mindoro,  Samar,  Cebii,  and  Letye  have  each  from  ten 
to  sixty  rivers,  which  aside  from  the  matter  of  drainage 
are  not  important. 

Panay  has  two  important  streams,  —  the  Panay  and 
the  Jalaur ;  the  former,  one  of  the  most  majestic  in  the 


A  River  Scene 


archipelago,  with  a  volume  equal  to  that  of  the  Caga- 
yan, drains  the  northern  portion  of  the  island,  while 
the  latter,  also  of  great  size,  drains  Iloilo  province. 


44  THE  rHiLirriNE  islands 

Negros  has  only  one  river  of  appreciable  magnitude, 
the  Danao,  which  rises  in  the  central  range  and,  flowing 
east  to  the  sea,  drains  the  eastern  slope. 

Mindanao  has  two  great  rivers, — the  Rio  Grande  and 
the  Agusan ;  the  former,  slightly  longer  than  the  Caga- 
3-an  of  Luzon  and  exceeding  it  in  volume,  rises  in  the 
center  of  the  island,  drains  this  central  portion,  and 
empties  on  the  west  coast  by  five  mouths ;  while  the 
latter,  the  third  in  size  in  the  archipelago,  rises  at  a 
distance  of  some  twenty-five  miles  from  the  southern 
coast  and  has  its  outlet  on  the  northern  coast.  This 
island  is  famous  for  its  lakes,  particularly  Lanao,  which 
is  the  center  of  a  large  Moro  population  and  is  histori- 
cally associated  with  the  struggles  between  Christians 
and  Moslems  during  the  period  of  the  Spanish  contest, 
and  l)etween  these  Moslems  and  our  American  troops 
of  recent  date. 


CHAPTER  II 
HISTORY 

Just  as  many  important  discoveries  have  from  time 
to  time  Ijeen  incidental  to  the  real  purposes  which  ani- 
mated the  ex2)lorers  in  the  efforts  to  realize  their  theo- 
ries, and  just  as  our  own  country  accidentally  became 
known  to  the  European  navigator  in  searcli  of  oriental 
riches,  so  were  the  Philippines  unexpectedly  found 
lying  in  the  path  of  that  skillful,  fearless  explorer, 
Magellan,  while  on  an  expedition  in  the  interest  of 
the  Spanish  crown.  Portuguese  by  birth,  he  lost  favor 
at  the  court  of  his  own  sovereign  hj  reason  of  the 
jealousies  of  certain  influential  men  of  the  realm,  and 
becoming  a  naturalized  Spaniard,  he  thus  gained  for 
Spain  the  group  of  islands  which  both  by  their  geo- 
graphical position,  in  accordance  with  an  agreement 
between  the  two  countries,  and  by  the  nationality  of 
the  discoverer  should  have  become  the  possession  of 
Portugal. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifteentli  century  one  great  source 
of  wealth  in  the  Orient  attracted  the  attention  of 
Europe.  Merchants  by  a  few  successful  ventures  had 
realized  fabulous  profits ;  shrewd  masters  of  vessels 
which   made  the   journey  for  these  same  traders  had 


46  THE  riin.IPFINE  ISLANDS 

themselves  received  handsome  returns  on  their  private 
investments,  and  had  spread  reports  of  the  existence  of 
an  eastern  El  Dorado ;  and  various  adventurous  spirits 
had  already  started  upon  a  search  which  offered  so  many 
inducements,  while  others  were  hastening  to  follow. 
The  objective  point  of  all  these  voyages  was  the  Spice 
islands,  the  center  of  the  spice  trade,  of  which  the 
profits  had  now  become  so  widely  known  and  so  gen- 
erally coveted. 

But  although  the  attractions  were  great,  yet  the 
difficulties  attending  voyages  to  the  East  Indies  were 
increasing,  for  obstructions  in  Egypt  were  becoming 
serious  and  the  ascendency  of  the  Turks  after  their  con- 
quest of  Constantinople  in  1493  menaced  the  security 
of  goods  sent  l)y  this  eastern  route.  A  heavy  premium 
was  thus  held  out  for  the  discovery  of  an  all-sea  course 
to  these  islands. 

Efforts  under  such  incentives  were  numerous  and,  as 
we  know,  successful  in  discovering  a  western  route,  and 
coincidently  western  lands.  Diaz  and  da  Gama  accom- 
plished this  for  Portugal,  and  Columbus  in  endeavor- 
ing to  do  so  for  Spain  found  America  itself.  These 
unexpected  developments  in  the  search  for  an  all-water 
route  to  the  spice  center  naturally  distracted  the  interest 
which  had  concentrated  upon  this  particular  industry 
itself,  and  led  to  the  broader  speculations  as  to  the 
possibilities  and  significance  of  the  recent  discoveries 
of  extensive  lands  hitherto  unknown.  The  desire 
to  push  these  enterprises  further  and  to  dedne  more 


HISTORY  47 

accurately  the  limits  of  the  new  lands,  to  seek  for  addi- 
tional territory  which  might  perhaps  exist,  and  to  add 
all  this  potential  wealth  to  the  mother  country,  while  at 
the  same  time  reaping  the  apparently  enormous  j)rivate 
harvests,  became  general ;  and  concessions  to  search  for 
unknown  lands  were  freely  granted. 

Simultaneously  with  the  Ijirth  of  this  new  interest 
in  discovery,  however,  and  l)y  the  very  reason  thereof, 
arose  the  solicitude  on  the  part  of  the  two  great  mari- 
time nations  of  the  da}^  Spain  and  Portugal,  as  to  their 
respective  rights  in  the  new  dominions ;  the  former 
desired  a  clear  title  for  the  foundation  of  her  colonial 
missions,  and  the  latter  was  jealous  of  retaining  the 
valuable  possessions  in  the  East  which  she  had  already 
acquired  by  right  of  discovery.  Pope  Alexander  VI  was 
consequently  appealed  to  as  arbitrator,  and  he,  desirous 
of  avoiding  any  trouble  between  the  two  great  Catho- 
lic countries,  freely  granted  in  the  Demarcation  Bull 
of  May  4,  1493,  the  right  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
to  explore  and  take  possession  of  all  unknown  and 
heathen  lands  west  of  a  certain  meridian  line  in  the 
Atlantic,  and  to  King  John  the  title  to  all  newly  dis- 
covered territory  east  of  that  line.  This  definition  of 
the  field  for  discovery  and  the  location  of  the  dividing 
line  as  a  hundred  leagues  (approximately  four  hundred 
miles)  west  of  the  Azores,  nevertheless,  failed  to  meet 
w4th  the  approval  of  the  Portuguese  king,  who  claimed 
the  right  by  a  previous  treaty  with  Spain  in  1479  to 
a  larger  field  for  exploration;   and  as  a  result  of  his 


48  THE  PJIILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

objections  tlie  line  of  division  was  fixed  at  a  distance  of 
three  hundred  and  seventy  leagues  from  tlie  Cape  Verde 
islands,  and  the  general  agreement  as  thus  modified 
was  embodied  in  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas,  June  7, 1494. 
The  real  significance  of  Alexander's  decision,  however, 
was  not  perceived  at  the  time,  and  it  remained  for 
Magellan  in  his  explanations  to  King  Charles  of  Spain, 
when  he  was  seekino-  aid  from  this  monarch  to  fit  out 
an  expedition  in  search  of  the  w^estern  route  to  the 
Moluccas  and  the  home  of  the  spices,  to  show  that  the 
Avorld  had  thus  been  divided  into  hemispheres,  with 
Spanish  rights  of  exploration  and  accession  supreme  in 
one,  and  Portuguese  in  the  other.  Thus  it  followed  that 
Spanish  expeditions  sailed  to  the  west  and  Portuguese 
to  the  east  on  their  tours  of  discovery,  and  conquests 
were  made  in  these  respective  fields. 

On  a  previous  expedition  in  1511,  Magellan  had  been 
present  at  the  taking  of  Malacca,  in  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, and  heard  of  the  islands  near  1)}'^  "where  they 
gather  cloves  and  nutmegs "  ;  and  later  he  received 
from  his  intimate  friend,  Serrano,  who  was  leader  of 
the  expedition  sent  out  by  Portugal  in  search  of  these 
islands  and  wlio  dietl  on  the  return  voyage,  a  full 
account  of  the  discover}'  of  the  Moluccas.  In  his  letters 
Serrano  doubled  the  distance  from  Malacca  to  the  Spice 
islands  in  order  to  add  to  his  reputation  as  a  navigator 
and  increase  his  reward  from  the  king ;  and  Magellan, 

^  Antonio  de  Morga,  The  Philippine  Islamls,  Moluccas,  Siam,  Cambodia, 
Japan,  and  China,  p.  12  et  seq.    Cited  liereafter  as  Morga. 


HISTORY 


4.9 


certain  of  his  ability  to  prove  liis  theory  as  to  the 
existence  of  a  route  by  tlie  west,  and  relying  upon  the 
information  and  distances  as  given  in  his  friend's  letters, 
proved  to  the  Spanish  king  that  the  Moluccas  were 
within  the  areas  granted  by  the  pope  to  the  crown  of 
Castile  for  exploration,  and  that  the  right  of  conquest 


Route  of  Magellan's  Fleet  in  the  Philippines 


of  them  was  his  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of 
Alexander.  Conscious  of  the  possibilities  of  this  ven- 
ture, strongly  desirous  of  making  these  rich  islands  his 
own,  and  willingly  persuaded  hj  a  man  of  such  enthusi- 
asm and  confidence.  King  Charles  assured  Magellan  of 
the  necessary  aid.  A  contract  was  entered  into,  by 
which  the  king  was  to  have  a  certain  share  of  the  trade 


50  THE  rillLIPPINK   ISLANDS 

profits,  according  to  the  number  of  islands  discovered, 
and  also  title  to  the  lands,  with  Magellan  as  governor ; 
and  a  fleet  of  five  vessels,  the  largest  of  which  was  only 
one  hundred  and  thirt}'  tons  burden,  with  a  crew  of  two 
hundred  and  thirty-four  men,  was  fitted  out. 

The  little  fleet,  composed  of  the  La  Trinidad,  com- 
manded by  Magellan  himself,  the  San  Antonio,  Vic- 
toria, Santiago,  and  Concepcion,  left  San  Lucas,  the  port 
of  Seville,  on  August  10,  1519,  and  mapping  a  course 
along  the  African  coast  and  past  the  Canary  islands, 
reached  Sierra  Leone.  Following  then  the  South  Amer- 
ican coast,  it  arrived  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  December,  four 
months  out  from  Spain.  Severe  cold  now  compelled 
Magellan  to  winter  in  the  San  Julian  river,  and  here 
he  remained  five  months.  From  the  beginning  diffi- 
culties similar  to  those  which  Columbus  had  experi- 
enced had  beset  his  path ;  jealousies,  discouragement, 
superstitions,  and  mutinies  among  the  sailors  coupled 
with  shipwrecks  combined  to  dismay  him.  One  shif) 
was  lost  in  a  storm  and  another  deserted,  so  with  only 
three  vessels  he  followed  the  laljyrinthine  course  be- 
tween the  islands  at  the  extremity  of  South  America, 
discovering  here  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  and 
passed  on  to  the  broad  Pacific,  which  ho  reached  still 
early  in  the  year  1520. 

Plain  sailing  was  now  before  him,  and  some  three 
months  later  he  reached  the  group  afterward  named  the 
Ladrones  l)y  Legaspi,  owing  to  tlio  thievisli  character  of 
the  natives.    But  without  linsJiering  Magellan  continued 

o  o  o 


HISTORY 


51 


westward  and  in  March  reached  Biituan,  on  the  northern 
shore  of  Mmdanao,  where  he  landed  and,  raising  a  cross 
on  a  small  hill  near  by  anrl  celel)rating  the  first  mass  in 
the  Philippines,  took 
possession  of  the  island 
in  the  name  of  the  kino; 
of  Spain,  and  began  to 
win  over  the  people  to 
Spanish  sovereignty. 

Hardly  had  he  be- 
come acquainted  with 
the  place,  however,  be- 
fore he  was  convinced, 
from  the  glowing  ac- 
counts given  him  of  the 
wealth  and  fertility  of 
an  island  called  by  the 
natives  Sabo,  that 
fairer  lands  lay  to  the 
northward ;  and  accord- 
ingly, setting  out  with 
a  native  chief  and  some 
of  his  Spanish  follow- 
ers, Magellan  proceeded 
north  and  entered  Celju 
harbor  in  April,  1521. 

Hostility  was  at  first  showai  the  newcomers  by  the 
Ce])uans,  who  gathered  to  prevent  their  coming  ashore, 
but    through    the    good    offices    of    the    Butuan   chief 


Magellan  Moxumknt  ox  Ma<  tax 

ISLAXD 


52  THE  PllILIPPIXE  ISLANDS 

friendliness  replaced  ill-feeling,  formal  oaths  of  good  will 
with  drinking  of  blood  each  from  the  other's  breast  were 
exchanged  between  Magellan  and  the  native  king,  and 
a  treaty  made  in  the  name  of  Charles  I  of  Spain. "  The 
friars  of  Magellan's  party  began  at  once  to  teach  the 
people,  and  many,  among  them  the  king  himself,  were 
baptized. 

In  his  zeal  to  cement  the  friendship  of  these  natives 
Magellan  promised  them  aid  in  carrying  on  their  war 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  island  of 
Mactan,  and  for  the  purpose  of  impressing  upon  them 
the  superiority  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  resolved  to  make 
the  expedition  accompanied  only  by  a  few  of  his  own 
men.  Arrangements  were  cpiickly  completed,  and  less 
than  three  weeks  after  his  arrival  at  Cebu  he  started 
on  an  enterprise  which  was  to  prove  disastrous ;  for  in 
his  eao-erness  he  had  not  reckoned  on  the  size  of  the 
enemy.  A  landing  by  night  was  effected,  but  at  day- 
break the  natives  swarmed  the  shores  and  by  force  of 
numbers  repulsed  the  little  group  and  killed  man}', 
among  them  Magellan.  As  a  completion  to  the  catas- 
trophe, Barbosa,  who  succeeded  to  the  connnand,  and 
a  number  of  his  officers,  upon  their  return  to  Cebu, 
were  treacherously  put  to  death  by  the  Christian  king, 
who  had  invited  them  to  a  feast. ^ 

So  few  Spanish  soldiers  now  remained  that  the  Con- 
cepcion,  the  poorest  of  the  three  vessels,  was  sunk  in 
the  harbor,  and  the  long  return  voyage  from  the  San 

1  Morga,  p.  14. 


Statue  to  ^Iagkllax 


53 


54 


THK   rillLlPPIXE   ISLANDS 


Lazarus  islands,  as  Magellan  had  named  this  group,  to 
Spain  was  begun.  On  the  "Sv^ay  Portuguese  in  the  island 
of  Ternate  were  encountered  and  difficulties  experi- 
enced ;  but  continuing  their  route  by  way  of  India 
in  one  vessel,  the  Victoria,  under  the  command  of  del 
Caiio,  the  survivors  of  the  famous  expedition  reached 

Seville  in  1-322,  three 
years  from  their  de- 
parture, after  having 
accomplished  the  first 
circumnavigation  of 
the  globe. 

Various  later  expe- 
ditions were  then  fitted 
out  at  intervals,  some 
from  Spain,  others 
from  Mexico,  one  of 
which,  in  command  of 
Villalobos,  is  of  espe- 
cial interest  from  the 
fact  that  the  island 
which  he  reached  — 
Samar,  or  Leyte,  as  other  authorities  claim  —  he  called 
"  Filipina "  in  honor  of  Prince  Philip ;  and  from  this 
the  name  was  extended  to  the  whole  group  shortly 
afterward  by  Legaspi,  a  Spanish  nobleman  residing  in 
Mexico,  whose  name  was  to  become  associated  with 
the  establishment  of  Spain's  dominion  in  these  "  Philip- 
pines."   For  Philip,   soon  after  ascending  the  throne, 


Kixc   Philip  II  of  Spain 


HISTOKY 


55 


sent  out  an  expedition  to  settle  this  country  named  in 
his  honor  and  selected  Legaspi  as  leader. 

An  expedition  capable  of  withstanding  hardship, 
including  some  four  hundred  soldiers  and  a  few  of  the 
Augustinian  friars,  Avas  accordingly  fitted  out,  and 
sailed  from  Navidad,  Mexico,  November  21,  1564,  to 
found  the  rule  of  Spain  in  the  new  possessions. 

Leyte,  Bohol,  and  Mindanao  were  visited,  and  later, 
contrary  to  the  warning  of  his  advisers,  Legaspi  dropped 


Old  Wall,  City  of  Cebu 

anchor  in  Cebu  harbor.  The  date  was  April  27,  1565, 
and  the  Spaniards  were  met  with  distrust  and  signs  of 
hostility  on  the  part  of  the  natives.  In  a  few  hours, 
however,  Legaspi  succeeded  in  forcing  his  way  to  the 
city  and  capturing  it,  and  within  a  few  months  he  had 
won  the  people  over  and  brought  about  complete  peace. 
For  years  all  went  well;  but  Spain's  fierce  rival  in 
all  these  early  discoveries,  Portugal,  gave  trouble.     As 


56  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

we  know,  the  archipelago  by  the  decision  of  Pope 
Alexander  was  in  the  Portuguese  field  of  exploration ; 
yet  Spain  Avas  unwilling  to  relinquish  control,  claim- 
ing her  right  l)y  discovery  and  expressing  her  determi- 
nation to  uphold  this  claim,  if  necessary,  by  force  of 
arms.  Legaspi  was  later  put  to  such  necessity  and  was 
successful ;  and  though  the  Portuguese  continued  to  be 
troublesome,  their  claim  was  never  realized. 

Cebu  was  made  the  first  seat  of  the  general  govern- 
ment, which  was  transferred  in  1509  by  Legaspi  to 
Iloilo.  Here  he  became  governor  general  and  started  the 
work  of  further  exploration  and  pacification.  Rumors 
reached  him  of  the  existence  of  a  great,  rich  island 
to  the  north,  and  to  verify  them  he  sent  his  grand- 
son Salcedo  with  another  officer  to  investigate.  Upon 
their  arrival  in  what  is  now  Manila  the  two  were  well 
received  by  both  native  rajahs,  though  later  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  at  resistance  was  made  l^y  one  of  them ; 
and  Salcedo,  after  visiting  other  parts  of  the  island, 
sent  word  to  Legaspi,  who  during  this  period  was 
administering  affairs  in  the  central  Yisayan  islands  in 
a  way  that  enlisted  the  confidence  of  the  natives,  to 
come  north.  Leaving;  affairs  in  the  hands  of  the  native 
chiefs  now  ruling  for  Spain,  he  proceeded  to  Luzon 
and  founded,  in  1571,  Maijiula,  later  Manila,  the  present 
capital. 

From  the  new  center,  Legaspi  carried  on  the  work 
of  pacification  in  the  provinces  of  Luzon  and  surround- 
ing islands,  sometimes  by  peaceful  means,  often  aided 


Legasi'i-Ukuaxeta  Moxl'ment 


57 


58  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

by  the  industry  of  the  monks,  and  again  by  force.  The 
lands  were  apportioned  to  those  who  had  pacified  and 
settled  them ;  governing  heads  of  provinces  and  towns 
which  were  founded  were  appointed  in  the  name  of 
the  crown  ;  and  bodies  were  chosen  to  provide  for  exi- 
gencies and  raise  money  for  the  royal  treasury.  The 
rate  of  tribute  for  all  the  islands  was  fixed  by  Legaspi ; 
arrangements  for  yearly  voyages  to  New  Spain  for  sup- 
phes  were  completed  ;  and  various  other  matters  relating 
to  the  conversion  of  the  people  to  Christianity  and  the 
administration  of  their  affairs  determined.  In  the 
midst  of  this  important  work  Legaspi  died,  in  1574; 
his  death  marks  an  era  in  the  history  of  the  Islands, 
for  through  him  Spanish  rule  first  became  established 
there  and  of  his  efforts  permanent  results  remained. 

Without  infringing  upon  the  suljject  of  later  chap- 
ters treating  of  the  different  peoples  of  the  Philippines, 
we  may  pause  here  for  a  brief  study  of  the  inhal^it- 
ants  as  they  existed  previous  to  the  period  of  Spanish 
domination,  which  will  l^e  of  aid  in  determining  later 
the  character  of  this  rule  and  its  effect.  The  Filipinos 
to-day  belong  to  two  distinct  families  at  least,  the 
Negrito  and  the  Malayan,  and  possibly  a  third,  the 
Indonesian,  may  be  added.'  During  this  first  stage 
the  several  racial  components  which  later  merged  are 
clearly  distinguishable ;  they  have  not  yet  been  mixed 

1  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  former  existence  of  this  people ;  the  weight 
of  opinion,  however,  tends  to  a  confirmation  of  tlie  view  tliat  the  Indonesians 
were  a  component  family. 


HISTOEY  59 

in  the  mortar  of  Spanish  conquest.  Our  earliest  glimpse, 
indeed,  reveals  a  race  of  very  low  type  populating  the 
entire  archipelago,  from  which  are  descended  the  Negri- 
tos, or  little  negroes, — small,  black,  extremely  sh}',  and 
without  fixed  abodes,  with  closely  curling  hair,  flat 
noses,  thick  lips,  and  clumsy  feet.  These  aboriginal 
savages,  after  a  long  period  of  undisturbed  existence, 
were  later  either  killed  or  forced  into  the  mountains  by 
the  Malayan  invaders,  who  form  an  important  ethno- 
logical element. 

Others  again,  fewer  in  number,  which  the  writer, 
with  the  better  authority,  is  inclined  to  accept  as 
Indonesian  descendants,  are  confined  to  the  single  large 
island  of  Mindanao  and  are  not  so  well  known.  They 
are  physically  superior  to  both  the  Negritos  and  the 
numerous  Malayans,  and  are  fairer  skinned,  taller,  and 
better  developed,  with  higher  foreheads,  larger  noses, 
more  regular  features,  and  often  full  beards.  Many  of 
them  are  clever  and  intelligent;  some  fierce  and  war- 
like ;  others,  with  happier  environment,  peaceful  and 
industrious.  Compared  with  the  Negritos,  who  are 
dwarfs  averaging  about  four  feet  in  height,  these  Indo- 
nesians are  giants,  often  six  feet  tall. 

The  large  majority  of  the  people  are  unquestionably 
Malayan ;  but  to-day  the  race  is  not  found  jDure  in  any 
island,  and  even  at  this  earlier  time  intermarriage  with 
Negritos,  Indonesians,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Arabs,  and,  to 
an  extent,  with  the  Spaniards  themselves,  had  begun. 
Three  invasions  by  the  Malays  are  supposed  by  some 


60  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

to  have  occurred :  ^  the  first,  of  people  resembhng  the 
Dyaks  of  Borneo  (particularly  in  barbarous  practices 
such  as  head  hunting),  from  whom  the  present  powerful 
heathen  Igorot  tribes  of  northern  Luzon  may  be  de- 
scended ;  the  second,  similar  to  the  previous  one  before 
tlie  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  bringing  the  stock  of  the 
existing  Tagalog,  Visayan,  Bicol,  Ilocano,  and  allied 
tribes  ;  and  the  third,  of  Mohammedan  jMalays  or  Moros, 
probably  an  immigration  from  Borneo,  which  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  coming  of  the  Spanish.  All  the  Filipinos 
of  Malayan  extraction  are  brown  in  color,  of  medium 
stature,  and  have  straight  black  hair ;  in  complexion 
they  are  darker  than  the  Indonesians  and  lighter  than 
the  Negritos. 

Essential  race  characteristics  do  not  change  in  a  day 
even  though  modification  takes  place  as  time  goes  on ; 
and  the  Malay  race  in  the  Islands  to-da}',  while  in  many 
cases  far  removed  from  the  savage  state,  still  retains 
much  that  was  associated  with  this  primitive  condition 
of  existence.  The  same  qualities  evident  now  —  unrelia- 
bility, suspiciousness,  treachery,  craftiness,  and  super- 
stition —  are  mentioned  in  the  early  Spanish  analyses  of 
native  character  ;  indeed,  the  colonists'  first  opinion  of 
the  Malay  may  be  pretty  accurately  stated  in  the  terms 
of  a  more  recent  epigrammatic  characterization  as  "half 
child  and  half  devil."  Yet,  if  such  they  were,  all  the 
more  effective  and  careful  nuist  have  been  the  early  work 
of  the   Spanish   trainers,  civil   and   ecclesiastical,  who 

'  Blumeutritt,  Die  Phillppinen. 


HISTOKY  61 

accomplished,  as  Ave  shall  later  see,  truly  wonderful  results 
in  the  next  half  century  following  the  death  of  Legaspi. 

The  natives,  when  the  Spaniards  first  became  ac- 
quainted with  them,  had  no  strong  political  or  social 
organizations ;  there  were  no  well-constituted  native 
states,  but  rather  a  system  of  clans  and  nomadic  tribes, 
the  heads  of  which  were  despotic  and  the  offices  heredi- 
tary. Classes  existed,  including  the  nobility,  composed 
of  the  chiefs  of  these  groups,  or  harangays,  their  kins- 
men, and  descendants;  the  free  natives  made  up  the 
middle  class;  and  the  slaves  and  serfs  belonging  to 
both  nobles  and  plebeians  constituted  the  lowest  class. 
Intermarriage  between  the  classes  was  to  an  extent 
possible,  but  was  not  common.  A  crude  system  of  jus- 
tice was  in  operation,  by  which  disputes  were  decided 
by  representatives  chosen  from  the  harangays  concerned, 
on  the  basis  of  their  unwritten  usages ;  and  crimes  of  a 
serious  nature,  especially  robbery,  were  severely  punished, 
sometimes  hy  reduction  to  slavery,  again  by  death. ^ 

The  natives  were  familiar  with  primitive  methods  of 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  mining ;  they  understood  the 
manufacture  of  simple  articles  of  ornament,  swords,  and 
crude  agricultural  implements ;  and  had  acquired  the 
art  of  weaving  cotton,  silk,  and  pineapple  fiber.  Writing 
was  early  known  in  the  different  islands,  according 
to  the  Araljic  fashion  from  right  to  left,  in  characters 
which  expressed  the  meaning  intended  "  as  fully  and  as 
easily  as  is  done  with  our  Spanish  alphabet."^ 

1  Morga,  p.  296  ei  seq.  ^  Ibid. ,  p.  294. 


62  THE  PHlLlPriXE  ISLANDS 

Small  boats  hewn  from  trees,  and  larger  sailing  craft 
were  used  on  the  numerous  streams  and  water  bodies ; 
and  trading  was  carried  on  between  the  natives  and 
the  Boniese,  Japanese,  and  Chinese.  Money  in  a  dis- 
tinctive form  was  not  yet  known  to  them,  and  gold  dust 
was  used  as  a  medium  of  exchange.^ 

Agriculture  was  an  industry  followed  by  some,  and 
rice,  sugar  cane,  cocoanuts,  native  potatoes,  and  the  like 
were  produced.  Water  buffaloes,  goats  and  deer,  dogs 
and  cats  were  the  domestic  animals  ;  horses  and  cows 
there  were  none.  Fishing  and  hunting  were  carried  on, 
and  bows,  arrows,  and  spears  were  commonly  used  both 
in  the  chase  and  against  the  enemy .^ 

Family  life  was  of  low  standard,  and  the  sanctity  of 
the  matrimonial  relation  was  hardly  understood  ;  un- 
morality,  however,  rather  than  immorality,  perhaps, 
existed. 

Except  in  Sulu,  INIindanao,  and  Manila,  where  Moham- 
medanism had  already  gained  a  footing,  heathenism  held 
sway.  The  sun  and  the  moon,  different  creatures,  and 
various  objects  were  worshiped.  No  common  temples  or 
public  places  for  prayer  were  known,  for  each  had  his 
household  gods ;  ^  superstition  reigned  supreme. 

Such  is  the  picture  painted  by  old  chroniclers  and 
travelers  of  the  conditions  previous  to  the  advent  of 
the  Spanish  ;  the  influence  of  the  latter  and  the  changes 
they  effected  will  be  later  seen. 

1  Montero  y  Vidal,  Jlistoria  de  Fillpinas,  Vol.  I,  p.  63  et  seq. 

2  Morga,  pp.  305,  306. 


CHAPTER  III 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  LEGASPI  THROUGH  THE 

INTERVENING  PERIOD  TO   THE 

UPRISING  OF  1896 

On  the  death  of  Legaspi  a  sealed  dispatch  from  the 
High  Court  of  Mexico  was  found  among  his  papers 
naming  Lavezares  as  successor  to  the  governorsliip. 
Mexico,  or  New  Spain  as  it  was  called,  really  governed 
the  Philippines  during  this  earlier  period,  and  hence  we 
must  conceive  of  the  Islands  then  as  a  dependency  of  a 
dependency,  governed  only  indirectly  by  distant  Spain. 
Particularly  in  a  legislative  and  a  commercial  way  did 
this  group  become  closely  connected  with  Mexico  rather 
than  with  the  mother  country,  and  we  shall  see  the  ill 
effects  of  such  an  unwise  scheme  of  administration. 

With  the  advent  of  the  new  governor  general 
various  events  of  importance  began  to  take  place.  A 
Chinese  invasion  first  demanded  the  serious  attention 
of  Lavezares,  and  by  its  threatening  proportions  caused 
deep  concern  among  the  Filipinos.  The  Chinese  people 
had  acquired  dominion  over  certain  parts  of  the  archi- 
pelago some  time  previous  to  the  Spanish  conquest,  but 
later  had  relinquished  their  control  either  voluntarily 
or  necessarily.    They  continued  to  carry  on  trade  with 

63 


64 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


the  Islands,  however,  and  it  was  by  the  capture  of  one 
of  the  junks  returning  from  Manila  that  a  certain 
Chinese  buccaneer,  Liniahong,  learned  of  the  Philip- 
pines and  the  ease  w^ith  which  the  Spaniards  had  taken 
possession  of  the  Islands,  and  determined  to  wrest  them 
from  the  latter.  A  fleet  of  sixty  or  more  war  junks 
was  accordingly  fitted  out,  carrying  some  four  thousand 


Old  Fort  at  Zamboaxga 

fighting  men,  fifteen  hundred  women,  a  number  of 
artisans,  and  necessary  food  and  other  supplies  which 
might  aid  in  this  expedition  of  conquest.'  It  reached 
the  northern  coast  of  Luzon  in  November,  1574,  and 
after  a  short  stay  turned  southward,  making  the  capital 
its  objective  point. 

On  account  of  their  cruel  treatment  of  the  natives  in 
the  north,   however,   the  arrival  of  the    Chinese   soon 

1  Montero  y  Vidal,  p.  72  ct  seq. 


FROM  LEGASPI  TO  THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      65 


became  known  in  Manila  and  preparations  were  made 
to  repel  them.  The  fleet  proceeded  down  along  the  coast 
toward  Manila,  and  had  almost  reached  the  bay  when  a 
severe  typhoon  overtook  it  and  destroyed  several  of  the 
junks  and  men.    Limahong,  nevertheless,  confident  of 


Walleu  Church  built  for  Defense  against  Moro 

Pirates,  Cuyo 
Numerous  churches  of  this  kind  are  found  on  this  ishmd 

victory,  pushed  on  to  the  capital,  landed  a  force  of  some 
fifteen  hundred  men,  and  marched  against  the  city. 

An  entrance  was  soon  gained,  and  Goiti,  the  com- 
manding officer,  and  others  at  his  quarters  were  killed ; 
but  the  pirates  were  repulsed  in  their  attack  on  the 
fortress  by  a  small  body  of  Spaniards,  who  fought 
courageously  and  compelled  their  enemies  to  retreat 
to  the  shore.  A  second  attack  soon  afterward  was  led 
by  Limahong  himself;    and  native  troops  having  in 


66  THE  riULlPPINE   ISLANDS 

the  meantime  been  mustered,  the  Chinese  were  again 
defeated.  After  this  the  fleet  sailed  away  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Agno  river,  and  the  pirate  leader  estabUshed 
his  kingdom  in  what  is  now  Pangasinan  province. 
Houses  and  temples  were  built,  crops  were  planted, 
and  in  general  steps  were  taken  to  make  the  place  one 
of  permanent  abode,  so  secure  did  these  strangers  feel 
in  their  new  home. 

They  had  failed  to  reckon  with  the  host,  however, 
for  Salcedo,  under  orders  from  the  governor  general, 
set  out  the  following  March,  1575,  to  mete  out  the 
])unishment  which  was  their  due.  With  some  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  Spanish  and  fifteen  hundred  native 
troops,  aided  by  a  small  fleet  which  included  a  war 
junk  sent  by  the  emperor  of  China  to  capture  Lima- 
hong,  this  able  grandson  of  Legaspi  led  the  attack 
successfully,  and  after  a  decisive  victory  pursued  the 
retreating  Chinese  into  the  mountains.  Limahong  him- 
self, who  had  from  the  outset  considered  personal  safety 
of  paramount  importance,  had  been  watching  for  the 
opportunity  to  separate  from  the  main  body  of  his 
troops  and  escape.  The  moment  came  when  the  Span- 
iards started  in  pursuit  of  the  routed  pirates,  and  the. 
leader  then  slipped  away  to  his  fleet  and  left  his  follow- 
ers to  do  as  best  they  could. ^  These  latter  took  refuge 
in  the  mountains  and,  it  is  claimed  by  some,  became 
the  ancestors  of  the  mixed  Chinese-Filipino  peoples  of 
these  northern  provinces  to-day. 

1  Montero  y  Vidal,  p.  70. 


07 


G8  THE   riilLlPriNE   ISLANDS 

During  the  next  fifteen  years  important  events  are 
chronicled.  Salcedo  died  ;  the  first  body  of  Franciscans, 
Jesuits,  and  Dominicans,  and  the  first  bishop  of  Manila 
arrived  ;  Spanish  expeditions  were  made  to  Borneo,  to 
which  Mindanao  and  Sulu  were  tributary,  and  to  the 
Moluccas  against  the  Dutch.  Two  thirds  of  the  city 
of  Manila,  furthermore,  was  destroyed  by  fire;  certain 
towns  revolted  against  the  excesses  of  the  militar}' 
commander,  and  a  conspiracy  provoked  by  the  thievish 
Moros  was  discovered  among  the  natives  of  Pampanga 
and  Manila ;  the  Santa  Ana  en  route  from  Acapulco  in 
1585  laden  with  a  valuable  cargo  was  captured  by  an 
English  buccaneer  ;  and,  perhaps  most  important  of  all 
happenings  during  this  period,  a  supreme  court  was 
established. 

The  inadvisability  of  legislating  for  the  Philippines 
by  way  of  Mexico  became  more  and  more  evident  as  time 
went  on ;  and  the  reason  for  the  growing  discontent  on 
the  part  of  the  natives  Avas  therefore  not  far  to  seek. 
The  Mexican  code  of  laws  was  naturally  unsuited  to 
these  eastern  islands,  for  the  conditions  and  the  people 
there  were  almost  as  different  from  those  in  Mexico 
then  as  they  are  from  those  in  America  now;  and,  fur- 
tlier,  the  men  who  framed  the  laws  for  the  Philippines, 
first  in  Mexico  and  afterward  in  Spain,  had  no  precise 
knowledge  of  such  conditions.  Dissatisfaction,  there- 
fore, must  have  been  inevitable. 

Legaspi's  followers  were  not  as  liberal  and  unselfish  as 
he  himself;  thev  were  far  less  considerate  of  the  natives 


69 


70  THE  PHILIPPIXE  ISLANDS 

and  their  forms  of  government.  After  him,  as  we  shall 
see,  the  tendency  was  to  centralize  too  much  authority 
in  the  governor  general  and  hence  deprive  the  people 
of  their  former  degree  of  independence.  Legaspi  had 
recognized  and  retained  the  ancient  communal  form  of 
government  by  wisely  adopting  the  group  of  one  hun- 
dred as  the  unit  of  his  administration,  the  body  itself 
being  known  as  the  harangay,  and  the  chief,  the  cabeza 
de  harangay.  His  successors,  however,  did  away  grad- 
ually but  surely  with  the  native  rule ;  tribal  councils, 
in  which  the  peoj3le  could  be  heard,  disappeared,  also 
the  native  rulers;  and  thus  the  inhabitants  lost  their 
representation,  and  arbitrary  power  became  concen- 
trated in  the  chief  executive  alone.  The  office  of  caheza 
de  harangay  lost  its  honorable  character  and,  soon  trans- 
formed into  an  instrument  for  collecting  revenues,  was 
shunned  by  respectable  Filipinos. 

Even  at  this  early  day  strife  between  the  Spanish 
officials  themselves,  civil,  military,  and  ecclesiastical, 
which  in  later  years  became  so  serious,  was  evident. 
Misunderstanding  between  church  and  state  arose 
almost  at  the  outset,  and  the  royal  court  of  justice  later 
became  a  party  to  the  controversy.  The  tension  soon 
increased  to  such  a  degree  that  in  1586  the  bishop  of 
Manila  sent  an  ambassador,^  Alonzo  Sanchez  by  name, 
to  lay  matters  before  King  Philip.  The  latter  proved  an 
interested  listener,  and  as  a  result  of  the  mission  a  royal 
decree  was  published  in  1589  defining  the  respective 

1  Morga,  p.  01. 


FROM  LEGASPl   TU   THE   UPRISING   OF  1896      71 

fields  of  activity  of  church  and  state,  doing  away  with 
slavery,  providing  for  the  collection  of  a  tribute  to  be 
distributed  in  certain  proportions  to  the  civil,  military, 
and  ecclesiastical  departments  ;  provision  was  also  made 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  fixed  number  of  troops,  the 
erection  of  a  hospital,  the  abolition  of  the  Supreme 
Court  established  such  a  short  time  previous,  and  the 
appointment  of  a  new  governor  general,  Gomez  Perez 
Dasmariiias,  besides  treating  of  other  matters  relating 
to  administration. 

In  the  midst  of  these  domestic  activities,  toward  the 
close  of  the  year  1591  came  an  ambassador,  Kiemon 
by  name,  from  the  emperor  of  Japan,  who  had  heard 
of  the  colonization  of  the  Islands  by  Europeans,  demand- 
ing allegiance  to  his  ruler.  The  coming  of  this  ambas- 
sador caused  much  anxiety,  yet  the  governor  general, 
while  treating  him  with  every  consideration,  was  firm 
in  his  refusal  to  recognize  the  new  sovereign.  Kiemon 
was  told  of  Spain  and  its  people,  and  soon  became  so 
favorably  impressed  that  he  assented  to  the  plan  pro- 
posed by  the  Spanish  governor  to  make  a  treaty  with 
Japan  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  trade  and  friendly 
interests.  Representatives  were  accordingly  sent  to  the 
emperor,  and  the  negotiations  were  soon  agreeably  con- 
cluded. On  the  return  voyage  of  the  envoys  to  Manila, 
however,  it  was  their  misfortune  to  become  wrecked, 
and  the  treaty  was  lost  with  them. 

Steps  were  taken  toward  signing  a  second  treaty; 
and  in  May,  1593,  two  other  envoys,  Bautista  and  Ruiz, 


72  THE  rillLlPPlNE  ISLANDS 

Franciscans,  accomj)anied  hy  8an  Miguel  and  Garcia,  lay 
brothers  of  the  same  order,  dejjarted  with  the  Japanese 
ambassador  for  Japan,  where  the  new  treaty  was  drawn 
up.  A  copy  was  sent  to  Manila,  and  Bautista  himself 
remained  in  the  country  to  carry  on  religious  work. 

Negotiations  witli  Japan  had  hardly  been  completed 
when  the  governor  general  Avas  visited  hy  the  native 
king  of  Siao,  one  of  the  Molucca  islands,  which  were 
under  Dutch  rule,  who  professed  allegiance  to  Spain 
and  besought  Dasmarinas  to  aid  him  in  liis  efforts 
against  the  hostile  Dutch  sailors  and  some  of  the  native 
tribes  of  Ternate.  The  Spanish  governor,  ready  to 
extend  Spain's  dominion,  particularly  over  the  rich 
Moluccas,  promised  help  and  set  to  work  preparing  an 
expedition.  In  October  of  this  same  year,  1593,  the 
fleet  set  sail,  composed  of  Spanish  and  native  troops 
and  Chinese  crews  for  the  galleys.  All  seemed  to  promise 
well  when,  a  few  days  out  from  Manila,  some  of  the 
Chinese  mutinied,  killed  the  governor  general,  and  took 
his  ship  across  to  Cochin  China  as  a  prize. 

This  unfortunate  turn  of  affairs  put  an  end  to  the 
expedition,  and  the  fleet  returned  home.  In  the  papers 
of  the  dead  governor  was  found  the  express  wish  that 
his  son  be  his  successor,  and  Luis  Perez  Dasmariiias 
was  accordingly  appointed  to  the  office  and  became 
governor  general  in  December,  IT) 93. 

During  his  incumbency  Manila  was  improved,  new 
buildings  erected,  and  a  home  for  orphans  and  desti- 
tutes established.    In   1595  an    expedition    to    Nueva 


FKOM  LEGA8P1  TO   THE   UPEISING   OF   1896      73 

Viscaya,  Isabela,  and  Cagayan  resulted  in  the  subjuga- 
tion of  these  regions.  During  this  year  also,  by  virtue 
of  a  royal  cedula  brought  by  Antonio  de  Morga,  appointed 
lieutenant  governor,  each  religious  order  had  assigned  to 
it  tlie  province  in  which  it  might  exercise  administration 
over  spiritual  affairs.  Expeditions  to  Cambodia  to  help 
in  quelling  a  struggle  against  the  king  of  Spain,  and  to 
Mindanao,  were  sent  out,  but  with  indecisive  results. 

Dasmarinas  was  succeeded  in  1596  by  Francisco 
Tello  de  Juzman,  who  assumed  the  office  of  governor 
general  under  conditions  that  were  hardly  indicative 
of  a  peaceful  administration.  The  trouble  with  Japan 
reached  a  climax  in  1597  in  the  massacre  of  a  number 
of  Spanish  priests  who  had  gone  over  to  this  country 
from  Manila  to  carry  on  their  missionary  work ;  the 
difficulties  in  Mindanao  and  Sulu  were  only  beginning ; 
and  the  Chinese  and  the  ever-hostile  Dutch  were  a  con- 
stant source  of  concern.  The  story  of  this  period  of 
Philippine  history  is  one  of  frequent  conflict  with  some 
one  of  these  warlike  j)eoples.  Events  not  of  a  military 
nature  which  were  considered  important  enough  to  be 
fully  chronicled  during  this  time  were  rare;  works  of 
peace,  it  is  true,  continued ;  the  royal  court  of  justice 
was  reestablished  in  1598  with  a  jurisdiction  extending 
to  the  southern  Mohammedan  islands,  Cambodia,  parts 
of  the  Moluccas,  and  the  Cliina  coast ;  and  the  College 
of  San  Jose  was  founded  in  1000;  yet  the  attention  of 
the  people  was  distracted  from  matters  of  internal  im- 
provement by  the  threatening  dangers  from  without. 


74  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

An  expedition  against  the  Moros  in  1602  and  further 
conflict  with  the  Chinese  in  the  following  year,  due  to 
the  arrival  of  two  envoys  from  the  emperor  of  China 
charged  with  investigating  the  report  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  mountain  of  real  gold  in  Cavite,  served 
only  to  aggravate  the  hostility  which  the  natives  en- 
tertained for  these  foreigners.  And  of  equal  serious- 
ness with  these  troubles  were  the  frequent  encounters 
with  Spain's  old  foe,  the  Dutch.  Under  the  state  of 
war  that  existed  between  these  two  rivals  until  after 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Islands  fared 
ill,  for  the  galleons  carrying  valuable  cargoes  between 
Mexico  and  the  Philippines,  and  trading  vessels  from 
Japan  and  China,  were  frequently  seized  as  prizes,  and 
the  Islands  thus  reduced  to  the  sorest  straits  from  want 
of  supplies,  not  to  mention  the  heavy  financial  losses 
incurred.  The  evil  effects  of  this  enmity  on  the  part  of 
Holland  were  not  finally  averted  until  the  restoration 
of  peace  between  the  two  countries  in  1763. 

Internal  conditions  during  this  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  were  taking  a  similarly  unsatisfactory 
turn,  and  as  soon  as  outside  dangers  had  grown  less  im- 
minent the  efforts  of  the  later  governors  were  directed 
largely  toward  quelling  domestic  revolts.  Uprisings  in 
Luzon,  Bohol,  Samar,  Leyte,  Mindanao,  and  Sulu,  and 
trouble  with  the  Igorot  tribes  followed  in  close  succession, 
and  in  general  only  a  temporary  adjustment  of  the 
difficulties  was  reached.  In  Cebii  it  was  needful,  always, 
for  Spain  to  keep  a  strong  armed  force. 


FKOM  LEGA8PI  TO   THE   UPRISIXCx  OF   189G      75 

As  we  pass  over  these  years  approaching  the  middle 
of  the  century  we  find  records,  too,  of  crop  faihires 
and  consequent  famines,  volcanic  eruptions,  and  severe 
earthquakes.  One  of  the  latter  in  the  year  1645  is 
especially  noteworthy  from  the  fact  that  it  witnessed 
the  passing  of  old  Manila,  the  beauty  of  which  had 
secured  for  it  the  name  of  Pearl  of  the  Orient.  So 
serious  was  the  shock  that  practically  the  entire  city 
was  destroyed  ;  and  in  rebuilding  it,  convenience  rather 
than  magnificence  was  the  prime  consideration. 

A  revolt  in  1649,  that  spread  from  its  source  in 
Samar  throughout  many  of  the  provinces  of  the  Visa- 
yas  and  Luzon,  of  chief  importance  to  us  perhaps 
because  it  was  the  first  outbreak  assumins;  such  o-en- 
eral  proportions,  caused  genuine  alarm  in  the  minds  of 
Governor  General  Fajardo  and  his  associates.  The  prox- 
imate cause  seems  to  have  been  the  severe  methods 
used  by  the  governor  general  in  forcing  the  natives 
of  Sitmar  into  the  insular  military  service.  The  action 
was  resented,  and  under  the  leadership  of  a  native, 
Sumoroy  by  name,  the  uprising  was  ushered  in  by 
putting  to  death  a  priest  and  sacking  the  churches 
along;  the  east  coast.  Various  battles  were  foucrht  before 
the  native  leader  was  driven  into  the  mountains,  and 
then  efforts  were  directed  against  the  sympathetic  in- 
surrections in  neighboring  islands.  Peace  was  secured, 
but  not  until  the  real  nature  of  a  spirit  of  revolt  that 
was  more  than  local  had  revealed  itself.  As  an  after- 
math   came    an    outbreak    in    Pampanga  (which    had 


70  THE  PIIILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

hitherto  been  first  in  its  loyalty  to  Spain)  and  Pangasi- 
nan  that  spread  to  other  parts  of  Lnzon.  The  imme- 
diate results  were  not  important,  for  dissension  among 
the  insurgents  themselves  put  an  end  to  this  revolt 
without  bloodshed ;  yet,  as  in  the  case  of  the  previous 
rebellion,  and  to  an  extent  in  confirmation  of  what  was 
then  forecast,  signs  of  a  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the 
character  of  the  existing  administration  were  unmis- 
takable. 

As  we  pass  beyond  the  middle  of  the  century  we 
find  recurrences  of  troubles  with  which  we  have  already 
become  acquainted,  particularly  with  the  Moros,  and 
again  with  the  Chinese  in  16G2,  when  a  threatened 
invasion  by  a  Mongolian  horde  was  prevented  only  by 
the  death  of  its  leader,  Kue-sing.  We  should  remember, 
nevertheless,  that  wars  and  internal  strife  formed  only 
one  part  of  the  history  of  these  earlier  years  of  Spanish 
control,  —  an  important  part,  it  is  true,  —  so  numerous 
and  strong  were  outside  enemies  and  so  recalcitrant 
were  some  of  the  native  tribes ;  yet  during  the  whole 
period  religious  activity  of  a  most  Avholesome  kind  con- 
tinued to  increase,  and  through  the  friar  missionaries 
and  their  native  lieutenants  converted  to  the  Christian 
faith  the  work  of  educating  the  people  was  seriously 
begun.  Those  accepting  Christianity  as  their  new  creed 
were  constantly  growing  in  numbers,  and  the  friars 
were  ever  pushing  farther  into  the  interior,  establishing 
missions  in  the  very  midst  of  heathendom  and  utterly 
indifferent  to  their  own  comfort  and  safety,  carrying  on 


FROM   LEGASPI  TO   THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      77 

the  work  of  God,  in  a  manner  that  was  at  once  most 
praiseworthy  and  inspiring. 

Conflicts  between  the  monastic  orders  and  the  church 
occurred,  it  is  true,  as  might  have  been  expected ;  the 
Jesuits  were  particularly  active  in  asserting  their  rights 
and  maintaining  their  independent  status,  and  the 
Augustinians,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  and  Recoletos, 
representatives  of  all  of  which  orders  had  by  this  time 
become  established  in  the  Islands,  voiced  similar  senti- 
ments. Yet  these  misunderstandings  in  ecclesiastical 
circles  were  comparatively  unimportant  at  the  time 
as  far  as  the  religious  work  was  concerned,  for  all 
interests  were  working  toward  a  single  general  oljject, 
—  the  conversion  of  the  natives  to  Christianity  and  the 
education  of  them  in  a  religious-academic  way ;  and  in 
this  a  remarkaljle  degree  of  success  was  attained. 

As  a  part  of  this  system  of  education,  schools  and 
so-called  colleges  were  founded,  which,  though  neces- 
sarily crude  and  meagerly  equipped  from  our  modern 
standpoint,  nevertheless  did  a  most  valuable  work  in 
these  earlier  centuries.  The  mere  existence  of  these  at 
this  time,  without  inquiry  into  their  efficiency,  bespoke 
for  the  friar  founders,  many  of  whom  were  martyrs  in 
the  cause,  a  noteworthy  energy  and  an  appreciation  of 
what  was  needed.  The  establishment  of  educational^ 
and  charitable  institutions,  as  well  as  hospitals,^  con- 
tinued on  a  jliore  pretentious  scale,   and  side  by  side 

1  See  chapter  on  education. 

2  Notably  the  Hospital  of  San  Juan  de  Dies,  erected  in  Manila  in  1056. 


78  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

with  these  were  erected  smaller  ones  in  tlie  several 
localities. 

Turning  for  a  moment  now  to  questions  of  trade, 
we  find  that  the  same  close  connection  between  the 
Philippines  and  Mexico  in  an  administrative  way  held 
also  commercially,  for  the  Islands  were  limited,  by  leg- 
islation that  became  more  and  more  restrictive,  to  deal- 
ing exclusively  with  New  Spain.  Free  trade  even  with 
the  ports  of  China  and  Japan  was  nearly  under  the  ban, 
and  absolute  restriction  seemed  the  tendency. 

This  traific  with  Mexico  was  carried  on  by  galleons, 
the  regular  departure  of  which  from  Acapulco  was 
established  in  1664.  Yearly  trips  were  made  between 
the  two  countries,  and  annually  was  the  year's  product 
of  the  archipelago  subjected  to  the  danger  of  loss  by 
storm,  pirate,  or  enemy.  When  such  losses  occurred  — 
and  they  were  rather  frequent  when  these  causes  were 
active  —  much  hardship  resulted  in  the  Islands;  and 
yet,  unsatisfactory  as  such  an  arrangement  was,  it  con- 
tinued without  material  modification  as  late  as  the  first 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  story  of  the  one  hundred  years  following  1664 
may  for  our  purpose  be  passed  over  even  more  rapidly 
than  that  of  the  previous  period.  Internal  improve- 
ment and  religious  activities  of  increased  scope  on 
the  one  hand,  and  distress  from  crop  failures  and  epi- 
demics, Mohammedan  and  Chinese  incursions,  and  pop- 
ular uneasiness  on  the  other  are  perhaps  the  chief 
characteristics.    Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  new 


FKOM  LEGASPI  TO  THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      79 

century,  in  1719,  a  serious  rebellion  in  which  the  gov- 
ernor general  ^  and  his  son  were  assassinated,  served  as 
an  index  of  the  hostile  turn  which  relations  between 
church  and  state  had  taken.  The  beginning  of  the  con- 
troversy dated  far  back,  and  the  refusal  of  the  arch- 
bishop at  this  time  to  deliver  over  criminals  who  had 
evaded  civil  authority  by  taking  advantage  of  church 
asylum  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.    The  archbishop" 


Sentuy  Box  on  Walls,  [NIaxila 

was  imprisoned  and  thereupon  the  flames  of  revolt 
broke  out.  Mobs  gathered,  stormed  the  prison,  freed 
the  prelate  and  many  others,  and  hunted  down  the  gov- 
ernor and  his  unfortunate  associates.  The  archbishop 
then  assumed  the  office  of  governor  and  retained  his 
position  for  nine  years,  after  which  period  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Mexico.  Different  investigations  from  this  latter 
country  were  made,  but  with  rather  questionaljle  results. 

1  Fernando  Manuel  de  Bustamente  of  Bustillo.  ^  genor  Cuesta. 


80  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

As  the  century  progressed  a  firmer  control  of  the 
situation  in  many  respects  was  gained  by  the  Spanish 
officials  ;  aggressive  steps  were  taken  against  the  Moros ; 
the  Chinese  were  forced  to  receive  baptism  if  they  wished 
to  remain  in  the  Islands ;  domestic  quiet  was  in  large 
measure  secured,  —  for  the  time  being,  as  it  proved ;  and 
the  works  of  peace  advanced  in  proportionate  degree ; 
yet  the  need  for  certain  changes  in  the  scheme  of 
administration  was  becoming  evident  to  the  Spaniards 
themselves. 

In  the  midst  of  these  conditions,  which  were  becom- 
ing favorable  from  many  points  of  view,  an  event  hap- 
pened that  threatened  to  displace  permanently  Spanish 
sovereignty  in  the  Philippines,  and  though  it  turned 
out  to  be  of  only  a  temporary  nature,  still  its  influence 
was  undoubtedly  felt  in  later  developments;  this  was 
the  occupation  of  the  Islands  by  the  British. 

In  Europe  at  this  time  had  come  a  temporary  lull 
in  the  long-standing  contentions  between  England  and 
France.  It  was  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  George 
III,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1761,  and  peace 
accompanied  his  rule  for  a  short  time.  But  the  time 
was  indeed  short,  for  the  ''  Family  Compact,"  the  alli- 
ance entered  into  by  France  and  Spain  for  the  purpose 
of  mutual  support  against  England,  fanned  the  old 
embers  and  the  flame  broke  out  anew.  War  was 
declared  the  following  year,  1762,  against  France  and 
Spain,  and  the  campaign  was  vigorously  pushed  on  the 
part  of  England. 


< 


81 


82  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Blows  were  struck  at  the  Spanish  possessions  in  both 
the  New  World  and  the  Orient  almost  immediatel}',  and 
were  successful  in  both  places.  Havana  and  the  Carib- 
bean islands  in  the  west  were  taken,  and  a  British 
squadron  of  thirteen  sliips  was  then  dispatched  to 
Manila.  It  arrived  September  22,  and  the  following 
day  the  surrender  of  the  city  was  demanded  and 
refused.  A  landing  followed  and  preparations  for  a 
siege  began. 

At  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  squadron  there 
were  only  six  hundred  Spanish  soldiers  garrisoned  in 
the  city  to  oppose  a  force  of  some  six  thousand  British 
and  Indian  troops.  Native  regiments  from  the  prov- 
inces, however,  were  soon  hurried  in,  and  the  city  held 
out  under  a  severe  bombardment  until  the  lifth  of 
October.  The  victorious  troops  then  crowded  in,  the 
British  flag  was  hoisted  on  Fort  Santiago,  and  the  city 
given  over  to  such  reckless  pillage  that  Draper,  the 
commanding  general,  on  the  third  day  put  a  stop  to 
all  upon  the  earnest  petition  of  the  archbishop.  The 
former  assumed  control  of  the  government,  aided  by  a 
council,  and  then  returned  to  Eurojje  leaving  civil  and 
military  matters  in  charge  of  his  subordinates ;  and  until 
January  30,  1764,  when  news  of  the  Peace  of  Paris 
reached  Manila,  the  Philii3pines  remained  under  British 
sovereignty.  By  this  treaty,  concluded  February  10, 
17()o,  the  war  Ijetween  England  and  Spahi  was  termi- 
nated, and  as  one  of  the  conditions  the  Philippines 
were   restored  to  Spanisli  dominion. 


FROM  LEGASPI  TO   THE   UPRISING   OF   1896      83 

Peace  restored,  the  civil  machine  was  put  into  opera- 
tion again  and  new  energy  applied.  Under  Governor 
General  Vargas,  in  1778,  an  innovation  was  made  in 
the  way  of  awakening  an  interest  in  systematic  agri- 
culture. He  was  a  man  able  to  see  the  profits  that 
might  be  realized  from  scientific  methods  of  working  a 
soil  so  fertile,  and  accordingly  he  caused  every  induce- 
ment to  be  held  out  toward  careful  husbandry,  the 
result  of  which  would  be  a  healthier  condition  of  the 
royal  treasury.  Fresh  tobacco  seeds  from  other  coun- 
tries were  secitred  and  attempts  made  to  introduce  the 
silk  industry ;  and  in  general  a  premium  was  put  upon 
conspicuously  successful  results  in  this  work.  Yet  Uttle 
permanent  good  came  of  these  plans. 

Tobacco  cultivation  had  by  this  time  become  impor- 
tant, and  in  1781  the  growing  and  selling  of  this  com- 
modity was  made  a  government  monopoly,  which  lasted 
for  an  even  century  until  terminated  by  a  decree  of 
Alfonso  XII. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  new  century  renewed 
efforts  to  subvert  Spanish  authority  followed  closely 
upon  one  another,  but  failed  to  meet  with  success.  In 
the  tobacco  districts  uprisings  occurred  in  1807  and 
again  in  1814.  Manila  itself  was  the  scene  of  a  later 
one  in  1823,  and  Cebu  and  Bohol  were  in  a  state  of 
revolt  four  years  later.  In  Luzon,  again,  in  Tayabas 
province,  a  more  serious  outbreak  took  place  in  1841 
under  the  leadership  of  the  "  King  of  the  Tagalogs,"  as 
he  was  hailed  by  his  followers,  who  attributed  to  him 


84  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

supernatural  powers ;  and  tliree  years  later  a  rebellion 
in  Negros,  in  which  the  governor  general  was  killed,  gave 
much  trouble.  The  last  phase  of  the  trouljlesome  Moro 
situation  was  also  now  approaching.  Throughout  these 
years  the  Mohammedan  pirates  had  carried  on  tlieir 
depredations  fearlessly,  and  not  until  18G1,  when  steel 
gunboats  of  light  draught  arrived,  were  the  Spaniards 
able  to  cope  with  them  successfully.  From  eight  hun- 
dred to  fifteen  hundred  persons  had  been  annually  carried 
away  by  these  marauders  from  Mindanao  and  Sulu,  and 
great  property  losses  inflicted ;  hence  the  decisive  blow 
dealt  them  at  this  time  was  of  no  little  importance. 

Conditions,  however,  were  becoming  less  and  less 
favorable  from  the  Spanish  point  of  view,  and  relations 
between  the  natives  and  Spaniards  were  growing  so 
irremediably  hostile  as  to  lead  inevitably  to  such  formi- 
dable insurrections  as  soon  took  place  in  Cavite  in  1872 
and  in  Manila  and  vicinity  in  1890.  The  former  was  a 
daring  attempt  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  led  by 
the  distinguished  Filipino,  Dr.  Burgos.  The  origin  of 
the  trouble  was  native  opposition  to  the  Spanish  friars, 
particularly  to  their  practice  of  retaining  parochial  ben- 
efices to  the  exclusion  of  the  secular  priests ;  which 
was  claimed  to  be  illegal  because  contrary  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  no  longer  within 
the  permission  of  the  j)apal  bulls  granting  to  friars  the 
right  to  hold  these  church  offices  temporarily  until  there 
should  be  native  or  Spanish  secular  priests  to  assume 
them,  since  this  condition  had  already  been  realized. 


FROM  LEGASPI  TO   THE   UPRISING  OF  1896      85 

Plans  had  been  carefully  laid  and  friends  of  the 
movement  in  Manila  were  to  begin  action  in  the  capital 
simultaneously  with  the  forces  of  Cavite.  The  latter, 
however,  mistook  the  signal  agreed  upon  and  started 
action  independently.  The  arsenal  was  seized  and  a 
determined  resistance  made,  in  which  some  of  the 
native  troops  took  sides  with  the  revolters.  The  regu- 
lar troops  after  sharp  figliting  recaptured  the  arsenal 
and  soon  had  things  in  control.  All  who  escaped  death 
were  taken  prisoners,  and  some  of  the  leaders,  includ- 
ing Burgos  himself,  were  executed,  while  others  were 
transported.  The  revolt  itself  was  stamped  out,  but 
the  spirit  remained  and,  nourished  by  influences  which 
then  began  to  be  felt  in  the  Islands,  appeared  in  for- 
midable proportions  in  the  revolution  of  1896. 

The  character  of  Spanish  legislation  for  the  Islands 
undoubtedly  contributed  much  to  increase  the  feeling 
against  the  mother  country,  for  it  was  often  unnecessa- 
rily harsh  and  inappropriate,  and  again  it  was  unsatis- 
factory in  its  provision  for  representation  in  the  home 
legislature.  As  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  for  example,  when  other  nations  were  seeking 
trade  and  new  opportunities  for  prosperity,  Spain  passed 
a  law  forbidding  foreigners  to  live  in  the  Islands. 

By  1812,  however,  a  change  in  the  right  direction 
had  been  made  when,  due  to  pressure  brought  to  bear 
by  the  Liberal  party  then  in  power,  the  so-called  "  Con- 
stitution of  1812  "  was  passed,  giving  to  each  colony  the 
right  to  send  one  or  more  representatives  to  the  Spanish 


86  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Cortes.  Yet  this  measure  proved  a  fleeting  benefit,  for 
it  was  destined  to  go  through  a  series  of  suspensions 
and  renewals,  granting  representation  to  the  Filipinos 
then  recalling  it,  until  the  opening  of  the  legislature  in 
1837,  when  it  was  voted  finally  to  exclude  the  Filipino 
members.  This  year  is  memorable  also  from  the  fact 
tliat  then,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  church 
in  the  Islands,  the  people  demanded  the  substitution  of 
native  priests  for  the  Spanish  friars. 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  a  political  way,  which 
resulted  from  the  exclusion  of  representatives  from  the 
Spanish  parliament,  was  a  trifle  relieved  the  next  year 
by  the  establishment  in  Spain  of  a  consulting  committee 
having  in  charge  the  business  of  tlie  Islands.  A  royal 
delegate,  furthermore,  was  sent  to  the  Philippines  some- 
what later,  in  1862,  to  study  the  various  phases  of  the 
question  of  administration,  and  the  following  year  the 
position  of  minister  for  the  colonies  was  created  by 
Spain.  During  all  these  years  the  slow  mails  were 
the  only  means  of  communication  between  colony  and 
mother  country,  and  herein  lay  a  serious  handicap  to 
the  work  of  government,  —  one  that  continued  until 
1880,  when  cable  communication  between  Manila  and 
Spain  was  effected. 

The  old-time  tribute,  the  cause  of  so  many  earlier 
revolts  among  the  peojDle,  was  finally  replaced  in  1883 
by  the  cedula  jyersonaly  or  identification  paj)er,  which 
every  inhabitant  above  tlie  age  of  eighteen  was  com- 
pelled to  have. 


FROM  LEGASPI  TO   THE   UPEISING  OF  189G      87 

Thus  in  the  second  half  of  the  last  century  certain 
improvements  were  brought  about  by  Spain;  but  the 
spirit  of  independence  that  was  now  becoming  firmly 
rooted  in  the  minds  of  the  Filipinos,  seeking  not  so 
much  perhaps  absolute  separation  from  Spain  as  au- 
tonomy in  their  own  affairs,  was  hardly  thus  to  be 
appeased.  An  uneasiness  was  perceptible  among  the 
natives  and  the  symptoms  of  a  general  insurrection 
were  begnming  to  be  discernible.  Before  we  discuss 
this  last  phase  of  Spanish  dominion  let  us  consider 
briefly  the  nature  and  general  results  of  this  rule. 

When  the  Spaniards  first  came  to  the  Islands,  as  we 
have  seen  in  a  previous  chapter,  some  of  the  natives 
had  already  begun  to  understand  a  few  of  the  arts  of 
civilized  people,  but  Spain  it  was,  as  the  careful  student 
of  history  must  admit,  however  critical  he  may  be  of 
the  character  of  Spanish  leadership,  who  rescued  the 
Filipinos  from  barbarism  and  raised  them  to  the  condi- 
tion of  comparative  civilization.  Largely  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  church  was  this  elevation  of  the 
people  as  a  whole  brought  about ;  the  Christian  religion 
became  practically  universal  among  those  of  Malayan 
blood;  and  from  superstitious  idolaters,  worshiping 
the  powers  of  nature  and  trembling  at  the  rustle  of 
every  leaf,  they  became  followers  of  Christ.  These  for- 
eign tutors,  further,  taught  their  charges  the  restraints 
of  civilized  society  and  established  schools  for  their 
instruction.  They  admitted  them  to  a  share,  though  a 
small  one,  in  the  offices  of  the  government,  and  advanced 


88  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

them  in  the  domestic  and  textile  arts,  bringing  to  them 
the  comforts  of  the  household.  As  a  traveler  in  the 
Islands,  writing  in  18G0,  says  of  the  Filipinos :  ^ 

They  have  adopted  tlie  religion,  the  manners,  and  the  customs 
of  their  rulers  ;  and  though  legally  not  on  one  equal  footing  with 
the  latter,  they  are  by  no  means  separated  from  them  by  the  high 
barriers  with  which,  except  in  Java,  the  churlish  reserve  of  the 
English  has  surrounded  the  natives  of  other  colonies. 

Contact  with  Si)anish  civilization  developed  a  higher 
type  of  Filipino.  This  development  of  the  natives  to  the 
stage  in  which  our  American  government  found  them 
may  be  traced  most  interestingl}'  in  the  origin  of  Spanish 
words  in  common  use  in  the  different  dialects.  Only  one 
very  primitive  article  of  dress  is  known  by  a  Visayan 
word,  the  language  of  the  central  islands ;  all  the  other 
words  pertaining  to  articles  of  dress  are  Spanish.  There 
are  words  in  this  tongue  for  primary  colors,  too,  but  the 
names  of  the  secondary  are  Spanish.  Ideas  of  God  and 
spirit  are  likewise  expressed  in  the  latter,  though  there 
is  a  Visayan  word  for  love.  Nor  are  there  any  equiva- 
lents in  this  dialect  for  the  words  for  shirt  and  shoe. 
Tables  and  chairs  were  not  known  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards,  and  the  Visayans  naturally  adopted  the 
Spanish  names.  It  is  interesting  to  note  further  that 
there  is  no  Visayan  word  for  soap. 

Similarly  among  the  Tagalogs  —  the  inhabitants  of 
Luzon  and  neighboring  islands,  looked  upon  as  the 
first  peoj)le  of  the  Islands  —  was  this  Spanish  tutelage 

^  Jagor,  Travels  in  the  Ph'lippines,  p.  30. 


FROM  LEGASPI  TO  THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      89 

beneficial,  as  is  evident  from  the  words  these  people  have 
introduced  into  their  dialect  from  the  Spanish.  The 
word  for  teacher  is  the  same  in  both  tongues,  and  so 
are  the  words  for  God,  saint,  angel,  and  other  religious 
terms;  likewise  the  words  for  kitchen,  hall,  window, 
door,  lamp,  lantern,  table,  clock,  stable,  glass,  bench, 
trunk,  carpet,  and  so  on  through  a  long  list.  Although 
the  common  people  continue  to  use  their  fingers  at  meals, 
those  of  the  upper  classes  make  use  of  spoons,  knives, 
and  forks,  the  names  for  which  are  Spanish.  As  in  the 
Visayan,  the  words  for  shoe,  stocking,  handkerchief,  rib- 
bon, cravat,  buttons,  pin,  thimble,  bonnet,  hat,  and  the 
like  are  also  Spanish.  Ink,  inkstand,  pen,  pencil,  paper, 
plate,  pasteboard,  gun,  sailcloth,  wire,  bell,  and  boiler 
are  words  all  adopted  from  the  newcomers.  Likewise 
of  Spanish  origin  are  cow,  goat,  horse,  laml),  goose, 
grouse,  lion,  and  tiger ;  theater,  store,  office,  mail,  tele- 
graph, school,  college,  and  academy;  all  terms  denoting 
military  and  ofiicial  rank,  such  as  soldier,  corporal, 
inspector,  captain,  general,  king,  and  president ;  also 
the  words  for  calendar,  almanac,  hours,  the  names  of 
the  days  of  the  week,  and  of  the  months;  and  to  con- 
clude a  list  that  might  be  much  extended,  the  letters  of 
the  alphal)et  and  the  names  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Curiously  enough,  while  most  of  the  metals  have  native 
names,  zinc  and  tin  have  not.  Names  of  natural  things, 
finally,  are,  as  would  be  expected,  of  native  origin. 

In  the  dialects   of   the  Mores,   on  the  other  hand, 
whose   immigration   was   interrupted   by  the    Spanish 


90  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

invasion,  various  common  words  together  with  theo- 
logical and  legal  terms  are  from  the  Arabic,  for  it  was 
through  Arabian  influences  that  these  Malays  became 
Mohammedans  previously  to  and  soon  after  entering 
the  southern  islands  of  the  Philippines. 

Language  alone  cannot  be  considered  by  any  means 
a  sufficient  criterion  :  on  the  one  hand,  certain  foreign 
notions  may  be  accepted  by  a  people  and  expressed  in 
terms  of  their  own  dialect ;  and,  on  the  other,  an  origi- 
nal native  idea  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  a  foreign 
language.  Yet  these  philological  facts  in  connection 
with  Spanish  colonization  of  the  Islands  are  rather 
significant,  and  aside  from  the  matter  of  deep  interest 
afforded  by  such  a  study  of  Filipino  dialects,  they  serve 
to  supplement  and  confirm  the  historical  side  in  show- 
ing what  a  long  step  toward  complete  civilization  was 
taken  under  the  Spanish  regime. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  at  the  time  of  the 
settlement  by  Spain  were  not,  like  those  the  English 
found  in  India,  a  people  with  a  civilization  as  old  as, 
if  not  older  than,  that  of  their  conquerors  ;  quite  the 
opposite  was  true,  —  the  A'ery  foundations  of  civiliza- 
tion had  yet  to  be  laid.  Native  institutions  not  conso- 
nant with  existing  social,  moral,  and  political  principles 
at  the  time  had  to  be  abolished  and  others  substituted, 
— a  work  which  required  care  and  tact,  and  yet  one 
which,  when  being  carried  out,  met  with  only  a  lack 
of  appreciation  and  ill-will  on  the  part  of  the  natives. 
While  the  Spanish  did  away  with  all  customs  that  were 


FEO:SI  LEGASPI  TO  THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      91 

contrary  to  natural  right,  tliey  allowed  others  to  sub- 
sist; they  abolished  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  chiefs, 
yet  maintained  their  social  position  and  used  those  of 
the  higher  class  in  the  work  of  administration.  Among 
the  first  of  their  tasks  they  had  to  jDrohibit  slavery; 
and  they  solved  this  question  of  labor  to  the  extent  of 
making  the  laborer  a  free  agent  in  the  sale  of  his  com- 
modity. The  number  of  days  of  corvee,  the  obligation 
of  service  owed  by  serfs  to  the  chiefs,  was  also  dimin- 
ished. Spaniards,  except  officers  of  justice,  were  for- 
bidden to  enter  the  towns  of  the  natives.  Magistrates 
were  bound  to  visit  all  parts  of  their  districts,  and  were 
compelled  to  change  then  residence  three  times  within 
the  year  that  they  might  more  readily  assist  the  natives 
in  the  various  localities.  Natives  were  allowed  to  change 
their  residence  when  it  was  to  a  place  where  religious 
instruction  was  already  established,  but  otherwise  not. 
The  conduct  of  the  Spanish  colonists  was  watched, 
and  as  a  punishment  for  crime  they  were  sent  to  the 
benches  of  the  galleys  side  by  side  with  Chinese  and 
native  convicts. 

In  the  beginning  the  Philippines  enjoyed  one  great 
advantage  over  the  Dutch  and  English  colonies  in  the 
active  cooperation  of  the  friars,  who,  unburdened  by 
families,  were  able  to  devote  themselves  to  their  labors 
in  a  whole-souled  way.  Of  the  early  work  of  these  mis- 
sionaries mention  has  already  been  made,  and  it  need 
only  be  added  that  their  efforts  did  much  toward  effect- 
ing the  true  conquest  of  the  Islands.    The  exceedingly 


92  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

small  military  force  that  was  necessary  during  all  the 
early  years  is  convincing  testimony  on  this  point ;  in- 
deed, as  one  writer  ^  said,  each  friar  was  a  general  and 
a  whole  army  in  himself.  Nor  were  their  activities  con- 
fined to  religious  instruction  alone,  for  they  introduced 
improved  methods  in  various  branches  of  agriculture, 
taught  some  of  the  finer  arts,  and  in  general  worked  an 
economic  and  a  social  advancement  among  the  people. 

The  Spanish  conception  of  colonization  was  itself 
essentially  different  from  that  of  the  English  or  the 
Dutch,  and  the  newly  discovered  territories  that  were 
added  to  Spain's  dominions  never  ceased  to  be  primarily 
fields  for  religious  activity.  Hence  the  important  posi- 
tion of  the  church  in  her  colonies,  and  also,  we  must 
add,  the  different  kind  of  treatment  which  the  Filipinos 
received  from  that  which  was  shown  their  neighbors  in 
other  parts  of  the  Orient ;  it  was  a  missionary  work 
with  Spain,  and  such  it  remained  during  the  whole 
earlier  period  of  Philippine  history.  When  Philip  II 
was  urged  to  give  up  the  Islands  because  they  would 
not  pay,  he  exclaimed :  "  What  would  the  enemies 
of  Christ  say  if  they  perceived  that  the  Philippine 
Islands  were  left  destitute  of  the  true  Light  and  its 
ministers  to  propagate  it,  because  they  did  not  produce 
ricli  metals  and  other  wealth  like  the  rest  of  the  fruit- 
ful islands  in  Asia  and  America?" 

If  it  were  not  for  such  sentiments  as  this,  and  the 
sense  of  duty  to  extend   the   true  faith,  Spain  might 

1  Morga. 


FROM  LEGASPI  TO  THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      93 

early  have  abandoned  the  PhiKppines,  for  the  tradi- 
tional Spanish  view  in  regard  to  the  value  of  the 
archipelago  is  seen  from  the  following  extract  from  an 
account  of  the  first  official  historian  of  the  Islands. 

The  Council  of  State,  observing  that  the  Philippine  Islands 
were  rather  an  Expence  than  an  Advantage  to  the  Crown,  being 
many,  and  hard  to  be  maintained,  had  proposed  to  King  Philip 
to  quit  them  and  withdraw  the  Court  of  Justice  and  Garrison 
that  defend  them.  They  added  the  example  of  the  Chineses, 
who  abandoned  them  tho'  they  are  such  near  Neighbors,  and 
can  relieve  them  with  such  Ease,  as  if  they  were  joining  to  their 
Continent.  That  as  Spain  governs  them,  the  loss  they  occassion 
is  considerable  without  any  Hopes  that  it  will  ever  be  altered 
for  the  better  ;  a  vast  Quantity  of  Silver  being  sent  thither  from 
New  Spain.  .  .  .  They  alleged  that  a  Monarchy  dispersed  and 
divided  by  so  many  seas  and  different  climates  could  scarce  be 
united,  nor  could  humane  Wisdom,  by  settled  Correspondence, 
tye  together  Provinces  so  far  removed  from  one  another  by 
nature.  Tliat  these  arguments  are  not  the  Offspring  of  Wit,  but 
of  Experience,  and  Truths  obvious  to  the  senses.  That  all  such 
as  might  be  urged  against  them  were  only  grounded  upon 
Honour,  and  full  of  a  generous  Sound,  but  difficult  of  Execu- 
tion ;  and  therefore  the  best  Expedient  was  for  the  King  to 
strengthen  himself  in  Europe,  where  his  Forces  can  be  ready 
to  meet  all  Dangers  without  being  exposed  to  the  Hazards  of 
the  Sea  and  the  Dominions  of  Others. 

This  was  the  argument  of  the  antiexpansionists 
nearly  three  hundred  years  ago;  and  with  the  numer- 
ous foreign  invasions,  piratical  attacks  on  the  coasts 
from  the  Moros,  and  tribal  uprisings  up  to  the  very  end 
of  the  Spanish  rule,  it  is  perhaps  not  strange  that  there 
was  such  a  feeling. 


94  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

How  careful  and  j)roductive  of  beneficial  results  for 
the  people  was  the  early  administration  of  the  Spanish 
we  have  now  noted  in  a  brief  way;  it  remains  to  con- 
sider the  change  that  gradually  took  place  and  gave 
rise  to  the  later  discontent  and  hostility  which  brought 
matters  to  the  crisis  of  1896. 

The  same  seriousness  of  purpose  and  regard  for  the 
natives'  best  good  which  characterized  the  rule  during 
the  earlier  years  was  unfortunately  lost  sight  of  as 
time  went  on ;  officials  less  scrupulous  than  their  prede- 
cessors were  not  inclined  to  maintain  the  former  stand- 
ard, and  personal  interests  began  to  influence  their 
policy ;  priestly  ambition  and  the  desire  for  domination 
began  to  supplant  the  religious  zeal  and  sincerity  of  the 
old  missionaries  ;  and  legislative  restrictions  both  com- 
mercial and  political,  putting  fetters  upon  the  infant 
commerce  of  the  Islands,  on  the  one  side,  and  depriving 
the  people  of  a  proper  share  in  their  own  government, 
on  the  other,  began  to  chafe. 

Conditions  were  such  as  gradually  to  foster  militarism, 
ecclesiasticism,  and  officialism,  which  have  never  yet 
brought  in  their  wake  great  economic  or  social  pros- 
perity. The  administration  of  justice  under  such  cir- 
cumstances began  to  deteriorate,  and  the  feeling  began 
to  gain  footing  that  there  was  no  justice  for  the  poor 
man.  At  the  same  time  the  brief  representation  in  the 
Spanish  parliament  had  given  the  people  a  taste  of 
political  freedom,  and  those  who  had  sat  in  the  Cortes 
returned  home  filled  with  the  idea  of  equal  rights  for 


FROM  LEGASPI   TO   THE  UPRISIXG  OF  1896      95 

all.  They  preached  this  doctrine  to  the  people  and  their 
words  found  ready  hearers. 

Soon  in  Luzon  a  group  of  young  Filipinos  gathered 
with  the  aim  of  bringing  about  real  reforms  in  the  gov- 
ernment and  securing  greater  peace,  prosperity,  and 
liberty  for  the  people.  The  discontent  among  them 
began  to  be  of  a  more  intelligent  sort  and  to  have 
a  more  definite  purpose.  The  few  thinking  Filipinos 
in  and  round  Manila,  some  of  whom  had  studied  in 
Europe,  Singapore,  and  other  places  away  from  home, 
were  arriving  at  a  clearer  idea  of  the  nature  of  the 
reforms  needed  in  the  country.  Mexico  had  secured 
her  freedom  from  Spain,  and  her  example  was  an  en- 
couragement to  them  to  strike  for  their  rights.  They 
had  no  idea  of  winning  independence,  but  they  desired 
a  change  from  a  harsh,  narrow,  tyrannical,  and  un- 
progressive  rule  to  one  of  the  nineteenth  century  with 
its  greater  liberty  and  its  insistence  upon  freedom  of 
belief.  The  conditions  during  the  later  stages  of  the 
Spanish  regime  were  hardly  encouraging;  learning, 
except  as  it  pertained  to  religious  studies,  was  discour- 
aged ;  liberty  of  opinion  was  not  tolerated ;  attempts 
at  progress  were  not  encouraged;  the  printing  of  sec- 
ular books  and  papers  was  virtually  prohibited ;  and 
Spain,  when  she  saw  the  sign  of  awakening,  stunted 
political  growth. 

Excited  by  the  ideas  which  the  Spanish  revolution 
and  that  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  had  gener- 
ated, a  number  of  the  Spanish  Filipinos  headed  various 


96  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

revolts  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
These  were  always  quelled  without  disastrous  results, 
yet  every  uprising  made  it  clearer  to  Spain,  especially 
to  that  party  at  home  anxious  to  give  the  archipelago 
a  good  government,  that  administrative  reforms  must 
be  brought  about. 

These,  it  is  due  to  Spain  to  say,  were  often  attempted. 
Agriculture  was  encouraged  by  royal  decrees,  likewise 
the  cultivation  of  cotton  and  the  introduction  of  ma- 
chinery for  making  thread  and  cloth  ;  a  mint  was  estab- 
lished in  jNIanila ;  roads  and  bridges  were  constructed ; 
civil  and  military  governors  were  prohibited  from  en- 
gaging in  commerce ;  l^odies  of  police  were  organized 
in  the  provinces ;  efforts  to  simplify  and  secularize 
education  Avere  made  ;  commissioners  were  appointed 
from  time  to  time  to  study  conditions  and  report  to  the 
home  government ;  usury  was  suppressed ;  the  tobacco 
monopoly  was  abolished ;  and  changes  in  the  general 
plan  of  civil  administration  were  brought  about. 

These  belated  efforts  were  of  too  superficial  a  char- 
acter, however,  to  reassure  a  people  already  grown  dis- 
trustful. Even  the  church  seemed  to  have  lost  its  hold 
and  was  not  wholly  able  to  maintain  obedience,  as  for- 
merly, through  its  relations  with  the  people.  As  one 
studies  Spanish  history  one  learns  that  the  Spaniard  is 
more  of  a  theorist  than  a  practical  man  of  affairs.  The 
Spanish  code  of  law,  for  example,  was  excellent  in 
theory,  and  the  insular  enactments  were  results  of  care- 
ful colonial  legislation  aimed  to  prevent  the  repetition 


FROM  LEGASPl  TO  THE  UPRISING  OF  1896      97 

in  the  Philippines  of  atrocities  similar  to  those  of  Pizarro 
in  Peru ;  yet  they  proved  defective  as  put  into  practice 
in  the  archipelago  by  those  who  knew  the  laws  imper- 
fectly or  were  dishonest. 

A  scholarly  Spaniard  writing  of  these  laws  in  1854 
says : 

Perhaps  there  is  not  one  of  them  which  may  not  be  presented 
as  an  example  of  equity  and  discretion  ;  but  among  them  some 
stand  forth  which  ought  to  be  learnt  by  heart  by  those  who  take 
pleasure  in  meeting  with  proofs  of  benevolence  towards  peoples 
on  the  part  of  those  that  govern  them,  or  by  those  who  seek  for 
models  for  establishing  the  public  administration  upon  a  basis 
of  equity. 

He  refers  to  one  law  which  provided  that '"'  offenses  com- 
mitted against  Indians  (natives)  should  be  punished  with 
greater  rigor  than  those  committed  against  Spaniards." 

Another  defect  in  Spanish  administration,  one  which 
defeated  every  attempt  at  reform,  was  the  too  frequent 
change  of  officials,  who  failed  to  stay  long  enough  in 
the  country  to  become  acquainted  with  it  and  its  re- 
quirements, and  with  the  means  of  satisfying  them. 
During  the  last  years  of  Spanish  dominion,  for  exam- 
ple, from  the  Cavite  insurrection  in  1872  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  1896,  there  were  eleven  military  governors  and 
eight  acting  governors. 

It  is  supposed  that  several  of  those  most  prominent 
in  the  Cavite  uprising  were  members  of  the  Cavite 
masonic  lodge,  the  first  one  in  the  Philippines,  founded 
in  1860.  Whether  this  be  true  or  not,  the  secret  socie- 
ties, which  had  been  merely  local  lodges  of  the  great 


98  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

brotherhood  of  freemasons,  now  became  political  bodies 
with  a  definite  aim,  which  was  directed  toward  ecclesi- 
astical and  political  reform. 

"  La  Liga  Filipina  "  was  founded  at  this  time  by  Dr. 
Jose  Rizal,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  more  later,  and  sev- 
eral young  men  who  had  been  students  of  Dr.  Burgos, 
nearly  all  of  whom  were  masons.  Their  object  was 
reform  and  not  separation  from  the  mother  country, 
as  may  be  seen  by  their  programme. 

They  demanded  (1)  expulsion  of  the  friars  and  con- 
fiscation of  their  estates ;  (2)  the  same  political,  adminis- 
trative, and  economical  concessions  as  had  been  granted 
to  Cuba,  including  freedom  of  the  press  and  freedom 
of  association ;  (3)  equalization  of  the  Philippine  and 
peninsular  armies  and  a  just  division  of  civil  service 
posts  between  natives  and  Spaniards ;  (4)  return  to 
the  owners  of  lands  seized  by  the  friars,  and  sale  of 
such  as  really  belonged  to  the  orders ;  ( 5)  prevention 
of  insults  to  the  Philippine  natives,  either  in  sermons  or 
in  the  press ;  (6)  economy  in  expenditures  ;  reduction 
of  imposts ;  construction  of  railways  and  public  works. 

The  mysterious  Katipunan,  with  its  blood  compact, 
was  also  founded  at  about  the  same  time,  "  to  redeem 
the  Philippines  from  its  tyrants,  the  friars,  and  to  found 
a  communistic  republic."  The  guiding  spirit  of  the 
organization  was  a  warehouse  keeper  in  the  service  of  a 
business  firm  in  Manila,  and  the  masses  formed  its  main 
constituency.  That  this  society  was  a  potent  factor  in 
the  uprising  of  1896  seems  beyond  doubt. 


CHAPTER  IV 

FROM  THE  INSURRECTIOX   OF  1896  TO  THE 
PRESENT    TIME 

A  body  of  thinking  young  men  with  enlightened 
ideas  and  plans  for  greater  liberty  among  their  people 
had  been  coming  into  prominence  in  the  Islands  during 
the  last  quarter  of  the  century.  Many  of  tliem  had  been 
in  Europe,  where  they  became  strongly  influenced  by  the 
liberal  doctrines  which  had  become  j)opular  there ;  and 
they  were  now  attempting  a  realization  of  these  in  their 
own  country.  Burgos  had  headed  the  movement  earlier ; 
Jaena  and  Rizal  were  later  leaders.  All  three  were 
lovers  of  their  country,  who  urged  reform  in  Spain's 
medigeval  system  of  government,  not  alone  in  the  civil 
service,  but  also  in  the  church ;  and  each  died  for  it : 
Burgos  was  garroted ;  Jaena  died  in  great  poverty  in 
Madrid,  whither  he  went  from  his  home  near  Iloilo, 
against  the  will  of  his  friar  teachers,  in  the  interests 
of  his  native  land;  and  Rizal  was  shot  on  the  Luneta 
in  Manila. 

Foremost  among  them  all  was  the  last  named,  Rizal, 
a  popular  martyr  in  the  cause  of  liberty  for  his  people. 
Born  in  tlie  small  town  of  Calamba,  Laguna,  on  the 
shores  of  the  lake  of  Bay,  in  the  year  1861,  he  was 


100 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


tutored  by  a  Tagalog  priest,  and  was  graduated  at 
twenty  from  a  Jesuit  college  in  Manila,  whence  he  went 
to  Europe  to  study  medicine.  The  family  name  was 
really  Mercado,  but  an  elder  brother,  a  young  man  with 
views  too  liberal  for  the  church,  who  was  also  studying 
at  the  capital  and  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  uni- 
versity for  having  lived  with  Dr.  Burgos,  persuaded  him 


Celebration  of  the  Anniversary  of  Rizal's  Death 


to  change  his  name  to  Rizal  that  he  might  not  be  perse- 
cuted because  of  his  name  and  hindered  in  his  studies. 

From  the  University  of  Madrid  he  received  the 
degrees  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
studied  for  some  time  in  Paris,  and  then  went  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  received  another  degree  of  philosophy. 
While  in  Berlin  he  became  a  member  of  the  anthropo- 
logical  society.    Together   with   medicine    he   took   up 


FROM  1896  TO  THE  PRESENT   TIME 


101 


ethnological  and  linguistic  studies ;  he  was  also  much 
devoted  to  art,  particularly  music  and  painting,  to  which 
he  gave  considerable  time  in  the  way  of  diversion  while 
preparing  himself  specially  as  an  oculist  in  Paris  and 
Vienna. 

After  visiting  nearly  every  European  country  he  re- 
turned home ;  but  so  disagreeable  was  the  attitude  of 
the  friars,  whose  wrath  was  aroused  l:)y  Rizal's  novel, 


Statue  i$y  Kizal 

Noli  Me  Tangere,  written  during  his  residence  abroad, 
that  his  stay  in  the  Islands  became  exceedingly  unpleas- 
ant, and  he  decided  to  return  to  Europe.  On  his  way 
he  spent  some  time  studying  in  Japan,  and  then,  after 
visiting  the  United  States,  proceeded  to  London.  Here 
he  continued  his  philological  work  and  brought  out  in 
Spanish  a  second  edition  of  Morga's  treatise  on  the 
Philippines,  in  which  he  attempted  to  show  that  under 
Spanish  domination  the  Filipino  had  retrograded  in 
civilization.     A  little   later,  in  1890,  he  was  engaged 


102  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

in  newspaper  work  on  a  liberal  journal  published  in 
Barcelona,  and  was  the  author  of  various  articles  in 
behalf  of  his  country,  in  whicli  he  never  asked  for  inde- 
pendence, but  always  souglit  reform.  Rizal  was  a  true 
Catholic,  who  believed  the  Islands  needed  the  guiding 
hand  of  a  progressive,  civilized  nation ;  but  nowhere 
did  he  express  the  opinion  that  his  people  were  ready 
for  self-government. 

His  attempts  to  arouse  interest  in  the  Philippine 
question  were  not  successful,  so  he  retired  to  Belgium 
to  write  his  second  political  novel.  El  Filibusterismo. 
This  completed,  he  returned  again  to  Barcelona,  where 
with  great  frankness  and  brilliancy  he  predicted  the 
downfall  of  Spain  if  she  continued  her  harsh,  unpro- 
gressive,  and  illiberal  policy  of  administration  in  the 
Philippines. 

Unable  to  keep  away  from  his  native  country,  how- 
ever, Rizal  turned  homeward  once  more  after  prac- 
ticing medicine  for  a  short  time  in  Hongkong.  He 
volunteered  to  return  in  order,  as  he  wrote,  "to  help 
heal  the  wounds  reopened  by  the  recent  injustices  "; 
and  closes  his  letter  to  the  governor  general  by  saying, 
'"  while  seeking  the  good  of  my  country  I  shall  at  least 
be  conscious  of  having  done  all  in  my  power  to  pre- 
serve her  union  with  Spain  through  a  stable  policy 
based  upon  justice  and  community  interests."  It  was 
with  the  promise  of  protection  that  he  left  for  Manila, 
but  immediately  upon  landing  he  was  arrested  on  a 
charge  of  sedition  and  banished  to  Dapitan  in  Mindanao, 


FROM  1896  TO   THE  PRESENT  TIME  103 

where  amid  most  dreary  surroundings  lie  spent  four 
unhappy  years,  convinced  of  his  innocence  and  yet 
refusing  opportunities  to  escape. 

Wliile  thus  isolated  he  was  visited  by  a  Mr.  Taufer 
from  Hongkong  accompanied  by  his  foster  child,  Miss 
Bracken.  This  gentleman  had  come  for  eye  treatment, 
and  during  their  stay  Rizal  fell  in  love  with  the  daughter 
and  married  her  shortly  afterward,  just  before  his  death. 

The  insurrection  of  1896  had  now  broken  out,  and 
Rizal,  still  at  Dapitan  and  realizing  his  position,  volun- 
teered to  go  to  Cuba  as  an  army  surgeon.  His  services 
were  accepted  and  he  left  for  Madrid  to  be  assigned. 
On  his  arrival  in  Barcelona,  however,  he  was  arrested 
and  immediately  returned  to  Manila  to  answer  trial  for 
having  instigated  the  insurrection  then  in  progress. 
Upon  false  testimony  he  was  convicted  and  condemned 
to  death,  and  in  accordance  with  the  sentence  was  shot 
on  the  Luneta  on  the  morning  of  December  30,  1896. 

Such  is  a  very  brief  outline  of  this  remarkable  Fili- 
pino's life,  —  one  that  presents  many  phases.  He  was, 
above  all,  a  lover  of  his  fatherland ;  but  he  was  also  a 
social  reformer,  a  prophet  who  saw  with  remarkable 
clearness  of  insight  and  with  a  boundless  hope  the 
future  regeneration  of  the  Filipino  people ;  and  he  was, 
too,  an  intelligent  leader,  revealing  in  his  writings  the 
highest  educational  ideals.  Were  he  living  to-day  he 
would  rejoice  in  the  reforms  inaugurated  by  the  Ameri- 
can government,  especially  in  the  extension  of  the  free 
public  school,  the  equalizer,  and  in  the  introduction  of 


104  THE  PHILlPriNE  ISLANDS 

common  language,  the  nationalizer  of  a  people.  A 
leading  thinker  of  his  time,  in  thought  and  character 
he  Avas  larger  than  any  country.  His  ideas  and  ideals 
were  presented  with  simplicity  and  directness  in  the 
two  novels  already  mentioned,  one  of  which,  Noli  Me 
Tang  ere,  has  been  well  described  as  "  a  poet's  story  of 
his  people's  loves,  faults,  aspirations,  and  wrongs."  ^ 
Physician,  poet,  reformer,  martyr,  Rizal  has  been  called 
by  an  eminent  personal  friend  not  only  "  the  most 
prominent  man  of  liis  own  people  but  the  greatest  man 
the  Malayan  race  has  produced.  His  memory  will  never 
perish  in  his  fatherland,  and  future  generations  of  Span- 
iards will  yet  learn  to  utter  his  name  with  respect  and 
reverence.  An  enemy  of  Spain  he  has  never  been."  ^ 
Already  has  his  memory  been  perpetuated  by  the  Ameri- 
can government  by  making  the  anniversary  of  his  death 
a  public  holiday  and  naming  a  province  in  his  honor ; 
and  everywhere  is  his  name  hailed  by  his  countrymen 
as  that  of  the  Philippine  patriot. 

As  Howells  says  in  his  review  of  An  Eagle  Flight, 
an  adaptation  of  Noli  Me  Tangere: 

But  lie  is  gone,  and  his  book  remains.  ...  I  don't  know 
whether  it  ought  to  be  astonishing  or  not  that  a  little  saffron 
man,  somewhere  in  that  unhappy  archipelago,  should  have  been 
born  with  a  gift  so  far  beyond  that  of  any  or  all  the  authors  of 
our  roaring  literary  successes  ;  but  these  things  are  strangely 
ordered  by  Providence,  and  no  one  who  has  read  this  pathetic 
novel  can  deny  its  immeasurable  superiority.    The  author  learned 

1  Introduction  to  yln,  Earjle  Flight,  viii. 

2  See  Monwjraph  on  Rizal,  by  Blunientritt. 


FROM  189G  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME  105 

his  trade  from  tlie  modern  Spanish  novelists  .  . .  but  he  has  gone 
beyond  them  in  a  certain  sparing  touch  with  which  he  presents 
situation  and  character  by  mere  statement  of  fact,  without  expla- 
nation or  comment.  ...  It  is  a  great  novel,  of  which  the  most 
poignant  effect  is  in  a  sense  of  its  unimpeachable  veracity. 

The  following,  Rizal's  dedicatory  preface  to  his  story 
of  his  Tagal  country,  speaks  for  itself. 

TO    MY    C()UNTRY 

The  records  of  liuman  suffering  make  known  to  us  the  exist- 
ence of  ailments  of  such  nature  that  the  sliglitest  touch  irritates 
and  causes  tormenting  pains.  Whenever,  in  the  midst  of  modern 
civilizations,  I  have  tried  to  call  up  thy  dear  image,  0  my  country, 
either  for  the  comradeship  of  remembrance  or  to  compare  thy 
life  Avith  that  about  me,  I  have  seen  thy  fair  face  disfigured  and 
distorted  by  hideous  social  cancer. 

As  a  true  and  sympathetic  picture  of  the  country 
during  the  j'ears  of  preparation  for  the  general  uiDris- 
ino;  of  1896  this  novel  should  he  read.  It  shows  a 
thorough  appreciation  of  the  conditions  at  the  tiinf>  and 
a  diagnosis  of  the  situation  the  accuracy  of  which  was 
later  confirmed  by  developments.  An  almost  prophetic 
insight  is  here  and  there  exhibited,  and  the  fatal  rup- 
ture between  rulers  and  subjects,  wdiich  followed  so 
soon  as  a  climax  to  political  events  fast  crowding  one 
another,  was  foretold  wdth  a  confidence  that  was  note- 
worthy. "  The  sleep  has  lasted  centuries,"  says  one  of 
the  characters,  describing  the  conditions  of  the  country 
to  the  newcomer,  who,  though  a  native,  has  spent  much 
of  his  life  abroad,  "■  but  some  day  the  lightning  will 
strike." 


lOG 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


And  within  a  few  years  after  the  publication  of  this 
book  the  lightning  did  strike  in  Cavite  province,  in 
August,  1896.  In  this  insurrection,  promising  to  be  so 
serious,  we  hear  for  the  first  time  of  Aguinaldo,  who, 
although  a  3'oung  school-teacher  of  twenty-seven,  was 
the  head  of  a  movement  which  had  spread  over  all 
Luzon  and  even  into  some  of  the  central  islands.  Owing 
to  the  ])orsecution  of  tlie  people  of  the  provinces,  where 


w\^ . 

r  '  m 

FoKT  Cavite 


the  secret  societies  were  supposed  to  be  strongest,  some 
five  thousand  Filipinos  had  signed  a  petition  to  the 
emperor  of  Japan  asking  him  to  annex  the  Islands. 
This  was  sent  in  the  early  months  of  1896,  and  the 
Japanese  authorities  forwarded  it  to  Spain,  thus  appris- 
ing the  mother  country  of  the  organized  plan  of  revolt. 
Immediate  action,  however,  was  not  taken,  and  not 
until  quantities  of  ammunition  and  supplies  were  found 
at  Taal  were  any  arrests  made.  Even  then  Governor 
General  Blanco  refrained  from  using  force  until  every 


FROM  1896  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME  107 

other  means  had  been  tried,  for  he  wished  to  avoid  open 
conflict  entirely,  if  possible,  and  at  any  rate  until  he 
should  receive  reenforcements  from  Madrid. 

By  the  last  of  August  the  revolt  had  gained  full 
strength,  and  encounters  took  place  in  which  the  rebels 
were  driven  back  from  the  capital.  Martial  law  was  pro- 
claimed, and  arrests  of  those  even  suspected  were  made 
in  such  numbers  that  the  jails  were  soon  overflowing. 
Province  after  province  came  over  to  the  revolutionary 
standard  and  soon  all  of  lower  Luzon  was  in  arms. 

A  change  of  governments  now  brought  Polavieja 
over  to  the  Islands  as  successor  to  Blanco,  and  a  more 
severe  campaign  conducted  by  a  man  who  had  had  an 
extensive  and  successful  military  experience  began,  in 
which  the  Spanish  troops  met  with  success  generally. 
But  failure  on  the  part  of  the  home  authorities  to 
send  reenforcements  because  of  the  serious  outbreak  in 
Cuba,  which  occupied  most  of  their  attention  and  de- 
manded an  enormous  number  of  troops,  prevented  Pola- 
vieja from  following  up  his  victories,  and  discouraged  he 
resigned  his  office. 

His  successor,  Rivera,  now  for  a  second  time  in  the 
Islands,  began  by  offering  amnesty  to  all  who  should 
lay  down  their  arms ;  and  many  Filipinos,  weakening 
because  of  the  cruelty  of  the  campaign  waged  against 
them,  accepted. 

The  center  of  the  insurrection,  which  had  been  in 
Cavite  province,  was  now  farther  north  in  Pampanga 
and  Bulacan  provinces,  with  Angat  and  San  Mateo  the 


108  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISL'ANDS 

two  particular  strongholds  of  the  Filipinos,  from  which 
they  harassed  the  Spanish  soldiers.  The  spirit  was  lag- 
ging somewhat  when  an  edict  of  July  2,  1897,  putting 
severe  restrictions  upon  the  movements  of  the  people 
in  the  towns  and  requiring  their  observance  under  pain 
of  being  treated  as  rebels,  fanned  the  flame  and  brought 
the  insurgents  to  a  Avhite  heat.  They  answered  by  pre- 
paring a  document  urging  all  to  take  up  arms,  demand- 
ing the  expulsion  of  the  friars,  representation,  freedom 
of  the  press,  and  more  just  laws  in  general.  The  old 
fire  burned  fiercely  again ;  and  the  governor  general 
perceived  that  some  measure  of  reform  was  imperative. 

Pedro  Alejandro  Paterno,  a  Filipino  educated  in 
Em'ope,  able  and  successful,  was  accordingly  appointed 
to  negotiate  with  Aguinaldo,  and  after  a  series  of  con- 
ferences with  the  insurgent  leader,  came  to  an  agree- 
ment which  was  embodied  in  the  Treaty  of  Biac-na-bato. 
By  its  terms  the  Filipinos  were  to  give  over  aims 
and  ammunition,  cease  for  three  years  from  forming 
designs  against  the  Spanish  sovereignty,  and  Aguinaldo 
together  with  certain  followers  was  to  be  deported  for 
a  period  to  be  determined  by  Spain.  In  return  they 
were  to  receive  one  million  dollars  Mexican  currency  as 
indemnity,  and  those  who  had  not  taken  up  arms  an 
additional  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  the  same 
money  as  reimbursement  for  losses  suffered ;  and  reforms 
for  the  Islands  were  promised. 

But  these  reforms  were  apparently  forgotten,  for  con- 
ditions which  began  to  look  favorable  now  took  a  dark 


Aguinaldo 


109 


IIU 


THE  PHILIPPIXE  ISLANDS 


tm*ii  again.  Misunderstandings  arose,  arrests  for  slight 
offenses  continued,  and  then  unex^jectedly  the  native 
regiments  at  Cavite  refused  to  serve  in  the  campaign 
against  the  ladrones.  In  April,  181)8,  a  serious  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  CeJju,  in  which  five  thousand 
natives  drove  the  Spanish  out,  cut  off  communications 
with  Manila,  and  took  possession  of  the  city.    A  few 


WUKCK    OF    THK    MaRIA    CuKISTINA 


days  later,  however,  Spanish  reenforcements  arrived, 
and  the  revolting  natives  were  driven  into  the  moun- 
tains after  a  crushing:  defeat. 

Further  dissatisfaction  now  arose  because  of  the 
arrival  of  a  new  chief  executive  and  the  return  of 
Governor  General  Rivera  to  Sj)ain  before  the  promises 
of  reform  were  realized ;  and  as  a  climax  war  was 
declared  between  the  United  States  and  Sj)ain. 


FROM  1896  TO   THE  rRE8E:S^T   TIME 


111 


The  results  of  this  in  the  Philippines  we  know  well 
already,  —  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Cavite 


Mabini,  the  Brains  of  the  Ixsurkectkjx 

on  May  1 ;  the  arrival  of  American  troops  two  months 
later,  and  the  taking  of  Manila  in  August;  and  finally, 
the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  the  consequent  Treaty 


Funeral  of  General  Lawton 


of  Paris,  December  10,  ratified  at  Washington  Febru- 
ary 10,  1899,  by  which  Spain  ceded  the  Philippines  to 


11:2 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


the  United  States.  The  first  United  States  Philippine 
Commission,  sometimes  called,  from  its  president,  the 
Schurman  Commission,  arrived  in  Manila  early  in  April 
of  the  same  year;  and  on  the  11th  the  treaty  of  peace 
was  proclaimed  to  the  Filipinos. 

Later  e^'ents  since  the  American  occupation  have 
hardly  yet  crystallized  into  history,  and,  further,  are  so 
fixed  in  the  memory  of  all  that  no  detailed  description  of 
them  will  be  attempted  here.  Sufiice  it  to  mention  briefly 
the  principal  points  in  this  last  phase  of  the  movement. 


Mount  Arayat,  Pampanga  Province 

General  Aguinaldo  returned  to  Manila,  May  19, 1898, 
on  board  a  United  States  government  boat,  and  started 
in  immediately  to  organize  an  army  and  a  government 
under  the  protection  of  the  American  gunljoats,  — 
whether  with  any  reasonable  belief  that  our  government 
would  aid  him  in  such  organization,  it  is  difficult  to  say. 
Certain  it  seemed  that  he  entertained  such  an  opinion 
and  also  that  the  Hongkong  Junta  was  convinced  that 
our  government  would  aid  him  and  his  followers  to 
this  end;  yet  the  evidence  is  clear  that  neither  Admiral 
Dewey,  who  had  furnished  some  guns  and  ammunition, 
nor  General  Anderson  had  made  him  any  such  promise. 


FROM  189G   TO  THE  PRESENT   TIME 


113 


To  the  Americans,  Aguinalclo  was  the  head  of  the  army 
cooperatmg  with  the  American  forces;  to  the  Filipinos, 
however,  he  was  a  dictator  and  the  head  of  an  organized 
government.  Immediately  on  reaching  Cavite  he  issued 
his  first  proclamation 
to  the  effect  that  the 
American  govern- 
ment was  to  exercise 
a  protectorate  over 
the  Philippines,  con- 
sidering the  natives 
able  to  govern  them- 
selves,  and  that 
restraint  and  order 
should  therefore  be 
observed  and  person 
and  property  pro- 
tected. The  spirit  of 
this  edict  was  in 
sharp  contrast  to  the 
practices  during  the 
uprising  of  1896 ;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Tagalog  leaders  realized  that  more  humane  warfare 
should  be  carried  on,  if  they  desired  the  United  States 
to  assume  protection  of  the  Islands  for  at  least  long 
enough  to  establish  a  government  of  their  own. 

Shortly  afterwards,   during  the   period  of   our  own 
military  inactivity,  pending  our  negotiations  with  Spain 


American  Soldiers  in  Possession 
OF  Railroad 


114 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


and  before  the  rupture  between  the  Americans  and  the 
insurgents,  the  latter  began  to  attack  the  Spanish,  and 
by  a  series  of  victories  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
whole  of  Luzon  outside  of  Manila,  and  even  sent  expe- 
ditions to  the  Visayas. 

A  second  proclamation  by  Aguinaldo  was  now  issued, 
in  which  he  assumed  the  responsibility  of  promising 
national  independence  to  his  people  on  behalf  of  the 


InsuugeNt  Leaders  deported  to  Guam 

American  government.  He  surrounded  himself  with  a 
cabinet,  and  then  changed  this  dictatorial  form  of  rule 
to  the  revolutionary  government  with  executive,  legis- 
lative, and  judicial  departments,  recognition  of  which 
by  foreign  powers  was  asked  August  G,  1898. 

The  insurgent  Congress  assembled  September  15,  at 
Malolos,  the  new  seat  of  the  Philippine  government, 
and  on  January  23, 1899,  the  revolutionary  government 
gave  way  to  the  so-called  "  Philippine  Republic,"  with 
Aguinaldo  as  president. 


115 


116  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Gradually  relations  lietween  Americans  and  Filipinos 
became  strained,  and  the  tension  increased  after  the 
fall  of  Manila  and  the  assumption  of  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment by  the  commanding  general  of  the  American 


A.MKRicAN  Soldiers  fording  a  Ri\  ek 

forces.  In  the  operations  against  the  capital  no  con- 
ferences had  taken  place  between  Filipino  and  American 
officers,  and  no  cooperation  of  any  sort  between  the 
respective  forces.  Dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the 
native  leaders  was  plainly  evident,  and  little  effort  was 
made  to  conceal  it. 

Yet  we  could  not  have  recoQ;nized  offhand  the  local 
government  which  had  been  established.  Aguinaldo's 
haste  and  unwillingness  to  follow  our  leadership  made 
it  impossible  for  our  commanders  to  adopt  a  more  sym- 
pathetic and  conciliatory  attitude.  They  had  no  means 
of  knowing  the  amount  of  territory  controlled  by  the 
insurgent  government  nor  the  efficiency  of  their  organ- 
ization, hence  they  naturally  hesitated. 

It  is  possible  that  a  way  might  have  been  found  by 
which  a  friendly  alliance  Ijetween  the  forces  could  have 


FROM  1896  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME 


117 


continued,  thus  making  unnecessary  the  war  that  fol- 
lowed. But  whether  this  were  possible  or  not,  the  Fili- 
pinos can  hardly  be  blamed  for  desiring  independence, 
nor  can  the  American  authorities  be  censured  for  refus- 
ing to  further  such  a  plan  before  they  were  fully  con- 
vinced that  the  former  were  possessed  of  a  sufficient 
degree  of  civilization  to  govern  themselves.  The  claims 
of  the  ambitious  Filipinos  were  natural  enough  but  hardly 
conclusive.  It  is  not  possible  here  to  go  into  the  in- 
formation furnished  the  authorities  in  Washington  rela- 
tive to  the  ability  of  the  people  to  govern  themselves ; 
it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  in  the  writer's  estimation 


Amkrican  Soldiers  on  Mountain  Trail 


the  refusal  to  grant  independence  was  a  wise  decision. 
Signs  of  rupture  meanwhile  were  evident  ;  friction  ex- 
isted between  the  troops  posted  near  each  other,  and 
on  February  4,  1899,  six  days  before  the  ratification 


118 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  hostilities  broke  out,  started  by 
the  shooting  of  a  native  soldier  who  attempted  to  cross 

the  American  lines 
in  the  darkness. 

The  conflict  soon 
became  general, 
with  the  result 
wliich  we  know. 
Our  troops  spread 
over  the  archi- 
pelago^ and  scores 
of  engagements, 
hardly  to  be  called 
battles,  were 
fought,  generally 
with  little  doubt 
as  to  the  outcome. 
Malolos,  the  in- 
8 urgent  capital, 
fell  in  August ;  the 
railroad  was  soon 
secured;  central 
and  northern  Lu- 
zon were  subdued ; 
and  as  soon  as  an 
adequate  miHtary 
force  was  avail- 
able attention  was 
General  Cailles  turned  to  southern 


FEOM  1896  TO   THE  PRESENT  TIME 


119 


Luzon,  and  then  to  the  central  and  southern  islands. 
By  November,  1899,  practically  all  organized  opposi- 
tion had  been  de- 
stroyed, and  small 
garrisons  scattered 
over  the  whole 
country  had  been 
abolished.  But 
guerrilla  warfare 
and  brigandage 
continued.  Agui- 
naldo  was  finally 
captured  in  April, 
1901,byFunston; 
and  C allies,  Mal- 
var,  Lucban,  and 
other  insurgent 
officers  afterward 
surrendered  or 
were  captured. 
On  July  1,  1901, 
the  insurrection 
was  declared  at  an 
end  by  proclama- 
tion of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United 
States,  and  the  administration  of  the  Islands  was  form- 
ally turned  over  to  the  civil  government.  Judge  Taft, 
president  of  the  Commission,  was  made  governor. 


General  Malvar 


Amkrican  Soldikks  at  Santa  Cruz 


San  Paiu.o,  Lagi'na 
Limits  of  concentration 


120 


FROM  189G  TO   THE  PRESENT  TIME  121 

At  this  stage  we  may  be  able  to  understand  somewhat 
the  conditions  of  the  miUtary  problem  which  our  forces 
had  to  solve,  —  one  bristling  with  new  difficulties,  to 
cope  with  which  there  was  for  a  long  time  an  insuf- 
ficient number  of  troops.  The  American  army  in  the 
Philippines  is  the  American  army  of  history, —  equally 
cheerful  under  hardships  and  criticism,  equally  ener- 
getic, and  equally  brave.  In  later  years  the  story 
of  the  American  subjugation  of  the  Filipinos  will  be 
written,  and  the  honor  and  glory  to  which  our  officers 
and  soldiers  are  entitled  will  Ije  theirs.  Nor  were  their 
efforts  confined  merely  to  stamping  out  the  insurrec- 
tionary movement,  for  mucli  intelligent  and  efficient 
reorganization  was  accomplished  by  them,  which  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  civil  authorities. 


CHAPTER  V 

CLIMATE 

Residents  of  the  temperate  zone  cannot  comprehend 
the  very  different  cHmatic  conditions  existing  in  the 
torrid  belt  and  their  effect  —  physical,  industrial,  and 
even  moral — upon  the  life  of  the  inhabitants.  The  influ- 
ence exercised  by  climate  is  always  a  marked  one,  and 
the  Philippines  are  no  exception ;  yet  the  views  as  to 
these  effects  have  been  so  various  and  contradictory 
that  the  attempt  is  made  here  to  present  a  few  of  the 
important  facts  as  borne  out  by  scientific  data,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  in  a  brief  yet  substantially  accurate 
way  a  general  idea  of  what  the  climate  in  the  Islands 
is.  The  subject  is  a  fundamental  one,  for  it  affects  the 
very  character  of  these  people  ;  it  is  closely  allied  with 
the  question  of  public  health  and  that  of  commercial 
geography ;  and  the  results  of  its  study,  furthermore, 
form  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  stock  of  scientific 
information  concerning  the  Islands.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  extended  consideration  cannot  be  given  it  here ; 
and  yet  this  seems  hardly  necessary  in  view  of  the  care- 
ful and  comprehensive  government  publications  that 
treat  this  question  fully. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  excellent  work 
done  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  study  of  earthquakes ;  and 

122 


CLIMATE  123 

even  more  time  and  labor  liave  been  devoted  by  these 
clerical  scientists  to  the  study  of  climate,  especially  of 
storms  and  their  causes.  The  practical  value  of  the 
Manila  Observatory,  where  this  study  was  carried  on, 
made  itself  first  felt  in  the  prediction  of  these  storms ; 
and  so  accurate  were  the  forecasts  and  so  great  the  aid 


Manila  Observatory 

rendered  to  navigators  and  farmers  that  the  importance 
of  this  central  weather  station  became  early  established. 
The  director  of  the  Manila  Observatory  was  the  first 
person  in  the  Orient  to  predict  the  existence  and  dura- 
tion and  to  determine  the  probable  course  of  tlie  violent 
storms  known  in  the  China  sea  by  the  name  of  typhoons, 
and  in  the  Philippines  by  that  of  haguios.  This  predic- 
tion was  made  in  July,  1879,  and  was  confirmed  by  the 
events  which  followed.    Later  in  this   same   year,  on 


124  THE  rniLirpiNE  islands 

the  18th  of  November,  the  director,  Father  Faura, 
announced  a  second  storm,  which  was  to  strike  Manila 
itself;  the  alarm  caused  by  this  information  was  great, 
and  the  warning  was  heeded  by  all  whom  the  news 
could  reach.  Vessels  were  ordered  not  to  leave  port, 
and  the  natives  themselves  took  proper  precautions  to 
avoid  the  destructive  force  of  the  hurricane.  It  swept 
over  the  archii^elago  almost  precisely  as  it  was  forecast, 
and  the  accuracy  of  the  information  given  out  by  the 
venerable  director  became  evident.  In  those  places  to 
which  notices  had  been  sent  comparatively  little  dam- 
age to  shipping  and  to  life  resulted  ;  whereas  in  the 
storm  ports  where  because  of  lack  of  telegraphic  com- 
munication the  news  did  not  arrive  in  time,  the  destruc- 
tive effects  of  the  storm  were  very  severe,  forty-two 
ships  foundering  in  southern  Luzon  alone,  and  many 
lives  were  lost.  Almost  remarkable  was  the  skill  dis- 
played in  these  first  storm  predictions  from  the  observa- 
tory ;  and  the  same  standard  has  been  since  maintained, 
with  the  result  that  from  the  very  first  this  weather 
bureau  and  its  reports  were  depended  upon  by  the 
commercial  interests. 

We  shall  now  turn  to  a  discussion  of  some  of  the 
separate  phases  of  this  general  question  of  climate  in 
the  Islands,  particularly  the  matters  of  temperature, 
atmospheric  pressure,  humidity,  precipitation,  winds 
and  clouds,  and  storms. 


CLIMATE  125 

Temperature 

The  monthly  mean  temperature  m  the  months  of 
November,  December,  January,  and  February  oscillates 
between  77°  and  79.7°  F.;  in  the  months  of  April, 
May,  and  June  it  ranges  between  81.5°  and  83°  F.;  and 
in  the  months  of  March,  July,  August,  September,  and 
October  this  average  is  not  less  than  80°  nor  greater 
than  81.5°.  In  accordance  with  these  variations  of 
temperature  the  year  is  divided  into  three  seasons  : 
(1)  temperate,  extending  through  the  months  of  Novem- 
ber, December,  January,  and  February;  (2)  hot,  covering 
the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June  ;  (3)  intermediate, 
dm-ing  the  months  of  March,  July,  September,  and 
October,  —  March  because  it  is  midway  between  the 
temperate  and  the  hot  months. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Manila,  based  upon 
deductions  from  twenty-four  daily  observations  extend- 
ing over  a  period  of  sixteen  years,  is  approximately  80°. 
The  mean  monthly  temperature  falls  to  only  77°  in 
the  coolest  months  and  rises  to  only  83°  in  the  hot- 
test. The  mildest  month  is  January,  with  a  tempera- 
ture of  77°,  and  the  months  of  December  and  February 
follow  in  the  second  place.  In  the  month  of  March  the 
temperature  rises  considerably,  attaining  an  average  of 
81°  ;  and  in  May  the  maximum  is  reached  with  a  record 
of  83°.  From  May  until  July  a  gradual  diminution 
takes  place  until  81°  is  reached  again,  and  from  August 
to  October  this  temperature  remains  unchanged.    From 


126  THE  PHILIPPIXE  ISLANDS 

October,  finally,  the  decrease  continues  until  the  month 
of  January  is  reached  once  more. 

The  highest  maximum  temperature  recorded  which 
has  been  found  by  tlie  writer  is  100°  F.,  in  May,  1889  ; 
and  the  extreme  minimum  temperature  reported  is  61°, 
in  February,  1888.  As  a  means  of  comparison  let  us 
look  at  the  temperatures  of  one  or  two  of  our  own 
large  cities.  Boston  has  a  mean  annual  of  48.6°,  a 
minimum  of  27°,  and  a  maximum  of  71°;  New  York 
has  a  mean  annual  of  51.7°,  a  minimum  of  30.5°,  and 
a  maximum  of  73.5° ;  New  Orleans  has  a  mean  annual 
of  68.8°,  a  minimum  of  53.8°,  and  a  maximum  of  82.2° ; 
Chicago,  a  mean  annual  of  48.3°,  a  minimum  of  23.4°, 
and  a  maximum  of  72°;  and  San  Francisco,  a  mean 
annual  of  55.8°,  w^ith  a  minimum  of  50.1°,  and  a  max- 
immn  of  60.4°.  The  highest  maximum  temjDeratures, 
moreover,  in  these  American  cities  are  often  over  100°, 
as  we  know,  and  again  the  extreme  minimum  figures 
are  sometimes  as  low  as  20°  below  zero.  And  so,  by 
comparing  the  figures  for  the  Islands  with  those  for 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  extremely  small 
degree  of  variation  of  temperatures  in  the  case  of  the 
Philippines,  as  against  the  very  great  differences  in  our 
own  country,  is  at  once  noticeable.  The  annual  varia- 
tion in  tlie  archipelago  is  not  uniform,  since  in  places 
nearest  the  equator  it  is  less  than  in  those  localities 
further  away  and  of  some  elevation  ;  yet  this  difference 
between  the  highest  and  lowest  temperatures  in  any 
part  of  the  Islands  is,  at  the  most,  very  small.    The 


CLIMATE  127 

yearly  oscillation  at  Aparri,  for  example,  is  9.4°,  the 
greatest  recorded;  in  Manila,  6.3°;  in  Negros,  3.6°; 
and  in  Jolo,  only  1.2° ;  and  thus  the  greatest  variation 
over  a  period  of  a  year  is  found  to  be  only  slightly  over 
9°,  a  figure  that  is  reached  frequently  in  New  York 
within  the  short  space  of  an  hour. 

As  to  the  effect  of  these  climatic  conditions,  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph,  taken  from  the  Official  Guide  of  the 
Philip2^ines,  is  of  interest.    It  says  : 

As  the  archipelago  is  wholly  situated  within  the  tropical 
zone,  it  has  the  climate  which  generally  characterizes  the  coun- 
tries which  are  found  in  the  same  position.  The  high  and  uni- 
form temperature  which  the  thermometer  reaches  throughout 
the  year  is  the  chief  reason  which  makes  it  disagreeable  and 
wearisome  to  live  in  this  region,  and  which  produces  in  the 
natives  the  laziness  and  inertia  which  characterize  them,  and 
a  sensible  prostration  of  forces  in  the  Europeans  who  reside  for 
some  years  in  the  country. 

In  voicing  this  same  opinion,  although  more  in  this  con- 
nection will  be  said  later,  the  writer  does  not  hesitate 
to  add  here  that  these  natural  conditions,  particularly 
those  of  temperature,  wield  a  determining  influence 
upon  residents  in  the  Islands  in  general,  whether  native 
or  foreign ;  make  the  native  himself,  to  a  great  extent, 
what  he  is  to-day ;  and  militate  against  efforts  toward 
systematic  hard  work  for  any  very  extended  period  of 
time  without  incurring  the  danger  of  becoming  run 
down  physically,  and  the  consequent  necessity  for 
recuperation. 


128  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Atmospheric  Pressure 

The  barometer  reaches  its  greatest  mean  height  in 
the  month  of  February,  and  then  continues  to  descend 
at  a  rate  of  ahnost  1  mm.  a  month  until  July,  when  the 
lowest  average  for  the  3'ear  is  reached.  A  slight  rise  is 
noted  in  August,  after  which  it  again  descends  slightly 
during  the  month  of  September,  although  remaining 
higher  than  the  average  for  July.  From  October  to 
February,  finally,  the  pressure  decreases  without  inter- 
ruption. The  mean  annual  oscillation,  or  the  difference 
between  this  maximum  monthly  average  of  February 
and  the  minimum  of  Jul}',  is  4.02  mm.;  and  the  annual 
average  pressure  is  759.31  mm. 

In  the  field  of  weather  study  in  the  tropics  the  one 
thing  noticeable  is  the  regularity  with  which  the  va- 
riations and  oscillations  of  the  three  meteorological 
elements,  namely,  pressure,  temperature,  and  relative 
humidity,  are  repeated  every  year.  Exactness  is  thus 
the  more  possible,  and  a  careful  study  of  the  indica- 
tions at  such  a  ^^lace  as  the  Manila  Observatory  enables 
the  initiated  to  know  almost  precisely  every  feature 
connected  with  any  particular  storm  or  kindred  dis- 
turbance which  is  threatening.  The  scientific  value  of 
this  possibility  of  accuracy  is  at  once  apparent,  and 
the  practical  value  is  exceedingly  great.  The  daily 
oscillation  of  the  barometer  is  so  regular  in  these  lat- 
itudes that  it  is  rightly  compared  to  the  movements 
of  a  clock;  and  it  may  be  said  with  certainty  that  the 


CLIMATE  129 

least  irregularity  observed  in  it  is  generally  the  most 
unmistakable  indication  of  the  proximity  of  some 
atmospheric  change.  The  tabulation  of  a  large  series 
of  such  observations  has  enabled  the  directors  of  the 
observatory  to  deduce  several  laws  as  to  barometric 
pressure  and  cyclonic  storms  by  which  these  dangers 
may  be  anticipated.  The  regular  variations  are  worked 
out  by  a  long  series  of  such  observations,  and  thus  any 
departure  from  these  can  be  quickly  detected  and  the 
greater  or  less  violence  of  the  coming  t3^phoon  foretold 
with  almost  absolute  certainty.  How  very  different  this 
is  from  the  case  of  our  own  weather  predictions  at  home 
and  how  much  more  simplified  the  work  of  forecasting 
is  made  in  the  Philippines  is  quite  apparent. 

Humidity 

The  atmosphere  of  the  archipelago  is  generally  loaded 
with  a  great  quantity  of  water  vapor,  the  existence  of 
which  in  such  abundance  is  due,  as  is  shown  by  the 
official  reports,  to  extraordinary  evaporation  from  the 
seas  which  surround  it  on  all  sides,  and  also  in  part 
to  the  richness  of  its  vegetation,  and  the  different  pre- 
vailing winds  of  the  various  seasons  of  the  year,  accom- 
panied by  the  heavy  aqueous  precipitation  common  to 
tropical  countries.  The  first  two,  namely,  evaporation 
and  vegetation,  may  be  considered  as  general  causes 
of  humidity  to  be  observed  in  all  the  islands ;  and  the 
last  two,  the  winds  and  the  ordinary  precipitation, 
may  influence   the   humidity  of  the   different  months 


130  THE  PHILIPPINE  I8LAXDS 

of  the  year  or  that  of  local  regions  in  the  archipelago. 
For  this  reason,  during  those  months  from  October  to 
June  when  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  first 
quadrant,  i.e.  northeast,  and  the  rains  are  most  abun- 
dant on  the  eastern  coasts,  the  humidity  will  be  greater 
in  those  towns  situated  nearest  the  Pacific  and  less 
along  the  western  coasts.  These  latter,  however,  will 
possess  a  greater  percentage  of  humidity  from  June  to 
October,  when  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  third 
or  opposite  quadrant,  i.e.  southwest. 

It  is  furthermore  worthy  of  note  that  as  the  rains 
from  June  to  October  are  caused  by  general  atmos- 
pheric disturbances  and  extend  their  influence  more 
or  less  over  the  entire  archipelago,  it  follows  that  the 
humidity  peculiar  to  these  months  is  considerably  in- 
creased, not  alone  in  the  vicinity  of  the  western  coasts 
but  also  to  a  certain  degree  in  the  interior  and  along 
the  eastern  shores.  And  since  it  is  true  that  from 
November  to  March  there  is  a  higher  percentage  of 
humidity  on  the  western  coasts,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
yearly  average  degree  of  humidity  must  reach  its  maxi- 
mum value  in  those  regions  that  are  most  exposed  to 
the  winds  from  the  first  quadrant,  i.e.  northeast. 

Because  of  the  excessively  large  amount  of  water 
vapor  found  in  the  air  even  at  any  time  during  the 
year,  the  high  uniform  temperature  of  the  Islands  is 
doubly  trying,  and  it  is  this  atmosphere,  filled  almost 
always  to  the  saturation  point,  that  causes  such  debili- 
tation.   In  Manila,  April  is  the  month  of  least  humidity ; 


CLIMATE 


131 


it  then  increases  in  degree  during  May,  June,  and  July, 
diminishes  somewhat  in  August,  again  increases  in  Sep- 
tember, when  the  maximum  is  reached,  and  finally  begins 
to  diminish  gradually  and  without  interruption  from 
October  until  April. 


Precipitation 

Precipitation  of  water  is  one  of  the  principal  ele- 
ments which  influence  the  climate  of  any  country,  and 
for   this   reason   the  rain  records  of   the   observatory 


A  Street  in  the  Kaixy  Season,  Victoria,  Tarlac 

are  full  of  interest,  especially  in  the  way  of  disproving 
some  of  the  absurd  statements  made  in  regard  to  the 
amount  and  frequency  of  rainfall,  and  in  confirming  cer- 
tain others  which  have  the  appearance  of  exaggeration. 


132  THE  FHlLlPriXE  ISLANDS 

The  statement  is  made  that  in  Manila  two  hundred 
and  three  days  out  of  the  year  are  rainy ;  and  again  it 
has  been  said  that  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  August, 
and  September  one  hundred  inches  of  rain  often  fall  in 
the  capital,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year  twenty  inches 
more,  —  assertions  which  can  hardly  be  supported  by 
the  facts. 

There  are  in  general  three  causes  of  ^precipitation : 

1.  The  first  and  principal  cause  is  the  atmospheric 
perturbation,  including  not  only  the  true  cyclonic  storms 
but  also  the  other  centers  or  large  areas  of  low  pressure. 

2.  The  second  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  tornadoes 
or  local  tempests  accompanied  by  heavy  thunder  and 
lightning,  which  frequently  continue  from  May  through 
October,  and  occasionally  occur  in  April  and  November, 
though  hardly  ever  during  the  period  from  December 
to  March.  These  rains  are  distinguished  from  the  pre- 
ceding ones  in  that  while  they  are  sometimes  fierce 
and  come  in  torrents,  still  they  are  usually  of  short 
duration.  They  rarely  occur  in  the  morning,  but  are 
frequent  during  the  afternoon  and  evening,  continuing 
during  the  night  and  sometimes  even  for  several  days. 

3.  Finally,  the  third  cause  of  the  rainfall  is  the 
influence  of  the  center  of  maximum  pressure,  which, 
in  the  months  of  December  and  February,  is  found  to 
be  situated  in  Siberia  toward  the  north-northwest  of 
Luzon,  frequently  extending  to  Mongolia,  northern 
China,  and  the  sea  of  Japan.  The  air  currents  of  the 
first  quadrant,  influenced   by   tlie   maximum   pressure, 


CLIMATE  133 

cause  great  and  frequent  condensations,  which  in  the 
months  of  December  and  February  are  produced  along 
the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Philippines,  and  at  times 
when  especially  abundant  and  extraordinary  reach 
the  western  shores. 

The  maximum  of  days  of  rain  in  Manila  and  vicinity 
is  during  July,  August,  and  Septemljer,  and  the  mini- 
mum in  February  and  March.  The  ''rainy  days,"  it 
is  to  be  understood,  include  all  those  during  which 
enough  rain  has  fallen  to  be  appreciated  or  measured 
by  the  ordinary  apparatus;  days  of  passing  showers 
are  not  registered  and  hence  not  taken  into  account. 
The  average  number  of  days  of  rain  for  the  different 
months  in  Manila  during  the  years  from  186 G  to  1898, 
inclusive,  are:  January,  5.1;  February,  2.8;  March,  3; 
April,  3.7;  May,  9.1;  June,  15.6;  July,  20.6;  August, 
20.3;  September,  20.2;  October,  16;  November,  11.7; 
and  December,  7.9 ;  making  a  total  annual  average  of 
135.9.  The  statement  made  that  in  Manila  203  days 
out  of  the  year  are  rainy  is  hardly  scientifically  accu- 
rate ;  135.9,  or  in  round  numbers  136,  days  is,  however, 
a  period  extraordinary  enough  to  astonish  the  foreigner 
who  comes  from  a  continental  country.  The  year  1898 
shows  a  total  of  198  days  of  rain,  while  in  1885  there 
were  only  89  days.  Much  care  is  generally  exercised 
by  the  writers  on  the  climate  of  intertropical  regions  in 
distinguishing  between  the  two  seasons,  — the  dry,  which 
lasts  from  November  to  May  inclusive,  and  the  humid, 
wet,  or  rainy  season,  which  continues  during  the  other 


134  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLA:t^DS 

five  months  from  June  to  October.  In  considering  the 
climate  of  the  Philippines,  however,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  this  division  can  be  applied  only  to  the  interior 
and  western  coasts  and  not  to  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
archipelago ;  for  along  these  coasts  the  season  from 
November  to  May  is  distinguished  by  much  rain,  and 
the  succeeding  one  from  June  to  October  is  far  from 
being  a  distinctly  wet  season,  as  is  the  case  on  the 
western  coasts  in  the  region  of  Manila. 

The  terms  "rainy  season  "  and  "  dry  season  "  are  apt 
to  be  misunderstood  by  persons  who  have  never  lived  in 
a  tropical  country.  This  is  the  case  with  many  who  start 
for  the  Philippines  supposing  that  the  rainy  season  is  so 
called  because  there  is  a  constant  fall  of  rain  dming  the 
five  months  included  under  the  term  "  rainy  season." 
If  one  stops  to  think  a  moment,  of  course,  the  so-called 
rainy  months  —  June,  July,  August,  September,  and 
October  —  have  long  periods  of  dry  weather ;  and  it 
is  not  a  rare  occurrence  for  ten,  fifteen,  or  even  a 
larger  number  of  days  to  pass  without  any  rain  at  all, 
or  at  most  with  showers  of  but  little  importance.  The 
only  practical  significance  in  this  distinction  between 
the  seasons  is  that  the  total  amount  of  water  which 
falls  in  the  five  months  of  the  rainy  season  is  greater 
than  the  amount  which  falls  in  the  other  seven  months 
of  the  3^ear.  Out  of  the  total  annual  average  of  136 
rainy  days,  43  come  within  the  dry  season  and  93  in 
the  rainy  season ;  or,  in  other  words,  thirty-one  per 
cent  of  the  rainy  days  of  the  year  are  in  the  dry  season 


CLIMATE  135 

as  compared  with  sixty-nine  per  cent  in  the  wet  season. 
The  average  percentage  of  rainfall  in  inches  is  20  for 
the  dry  against  80  for  the  wet  season. 

One  hundred  and  seventeen  inches  of  rain  fell  at 
Manila  during  the  year  1867;  and  the  next  highest 
amount  during  the  years  from  1865  to  1898  was  in 
1891, — approximately  105  inches.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  rainfall  for  1874  was  only  47  inches.  The  yearly 
average  for  Manila  is  75.5  inches,  compared  with  116 
inches  for  Albay  province,  45  inches  for  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  only  25  for  San  Francisco. 

The  heaviest  rainfall  which  has  been  recorded  in 
Manila  for  any  one  month  was  in  September,  1867, 
when  about  58  inches  of  water  fell;  and  in  contrast  to 
this  is  the  month  of  September,  1885,  when  less  than 
2  inches  was  recorded.  During  the  first  July  of  Ameri- 
can occupation,  that  is  in  1899,  39  inches  of  rain  fell, — 
the  second  highest  record  for  a  single  month  that  has 
been  found ;  and  September  24,  1867,  is  recorded  as 
having  experienced  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours  a 
fall  of  13  inches,  the  maximum  amount  for  the  space  of 
a  day.  Such  statements,  frequently  heard,  that  20  inches 
of  water  fall  in  Manila  in  one  day  are  thus,  holding  to 
the  facts,  hardly  true,  although  for  parts  of  the  day 
really  remarkable  downpours  have  occurred.  On  May  21, 
1892,  between  the  hours  of  five  and  six  in  the  after- 
noon, 2^  inches  of  water  fell,  which  is  the  record  for 
the  period  of  one  hour,  and  was  indeed  excessive.  The 
most  noted  storm  in  Philippine  meteorological  history. 


136 


THE  PHlLlPriNE  ISLANDS 


during  wliicli  the  greatest  quantity  of  water  fell  in  tlie 
least  space  of  time,  is  the  rainfall  which  occurred  during 
the  tornadoes  of  August  28,  1897,  amounting  to  1.5 
inches  of  water  in  the  s^jace  of  only  sixteen  minutes. 


Winds  and  Clouds 

The  prevailing  winds  in  Manila  and  vicinity  are 
southwest  for  six  months  of  the  year,— from  May  until 
October;  northerly  from  November  to  January;  and 
during  the  other  three  months  of  February,  March,  and 
April,  easterly.  May  is  the  month  of  the  veering  of  the 
winds  from  east  to  southwest,  and  October  the  one  dur- 
ing which  they  change  from  southwest  to  north.    The 


Sunset,  Manila   Bay 


particular  winds  of  the  Philippines  are  not  monsoons  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  though  this  term  is  com- 
monly used  to  describe  them,  for  they  have  a  local 
action  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  do  not  conform  to 


CLIMATE 


137 


the  regular  semiannual  changes  which  characterize  the 
monsoons  of  neisrhboring;  countries. 

The  results  of  the  study  at  the  observatory  of  the 
different  features  of  the  clouds  are  of  much  value,  for 


Sunset,  Manila  Bay 

by  attentively  examining  the  height  and  direction  of 
those  observed  in  the  proximity  of  a  cyclone  and  com- 
paring these  results  with  the  height  and  direction  which 
have  been  found  true  under  normal  conditions,  really 
remarkable  differences  have  been  found,  that  have 
opened  new  avenues  of  information  and  increased  the 
number  of  means  by  which  it  is  possible  to  predict  the 
advent  of  these  cyclonic  disturbances. 

The  cloudiest  month  of  the  year,  speaking  for  the 
geographical  region  of  Manila,  is  August ;  and  the  clear- 
est month,  March.  The  number  and  volume  of  the 
clouds  increase  progressively  from  April  to  August,  and 
then  begin  to  diminish  again,  until  the  minimum  degree 
of  cloudiness  is  reached  in  March. 


138  THE  THILIPI'INE   ISLANDS 

Cyclones 

True  and  typical  cyclones  possessing  the  genuine 
movements  of  rotation  and  transference  are  found  in 
the  Philippine  archipelago  and  the  seas  that  surround 
it.  These  haguios,  as  the  natives  know  them,  or  ty- 
phoons, as  they  are  frequently  called  by  Americans,  who 


On  the  Luneta  Beach  ouKiNii  a  Typhoon  ;    looking 

South  from  ^Manila 

From  stereograph.     Copyright  hy  Underwood  &  Underwood,  New  York 

have  adopted  the  Chinese  name  for  such  storms,  do  not 
fall  short  of  equaling  the  cyclones  of  the  Indian  ocean 
or  the  hurricanes  of  the  Atlantic  in  their  intensity  and 
destructive  power. 

During  the  years  1880  to  1898,  397  cyclones  ap- 
peared in  the  archipelago, —  a  yearly  average  of  twenty- 
one.  Not  one  of  these  was  obser\-ed  in  February,  and 
only    3    in    the    month    of    March.     Their    frequency 


139 


J 40  THE  i'lliLiPi'l.NE   i.SLA>^J).S 

then  increased  from  April,  when  9  were  found  to  have 
occurred,  to  July,  when  66  were  recorded.  There  was  a 
slight  decrease  for  the  month  of  August,  and  the  maxi- 
mum of  79  was  reached  in  September.  The  figures  are  as 
follows  :  January,  6 ;  February,  none  ;  March,  3 ;  April, 
9;  May,  24;  June,  35;  July,  66;  August,  63;  Septem- 
ber, 79;  October,  54;  November,  40;  December,  8. 
The  accuracy  with  which  an  individual  observer  may 
determine  by  means  of  the  barometer  the  almost  exact 
nature  of  a  coming  cyclone  has  already  been  mentioned. 
There  is,  however,  another  means  for  the  detection  of 
these  disturbances,  and  that  is  the  nebulous  condition  of 
the  atmosphere,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  conver- 
gence of  cirrus  clouds, — a  sign  which  is  considerably 
more  valuable  than  the  barometer,  coming,  as  it  does, 
oftentimes  two  or  three  days  before  any  indication  of 
an  atmospheric  change  is  shown  by  this  instrument. 
By  observing  these  high  clouds,  which  are  small  in 
size,  of  very  fine  structure,  and  of  clear  opal  color, 
generally  a|)pearing  as  elongated  feathers,  known  to 
mariners  as  ''  cocktails,"  the  position  of  the  vortex  of 
the  storm  and  the  various  movements  may  be  deter- 
mined with  comparative  ease.  The  first  idea  of  utilizing 
these  clouds  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  storm 
vortex  is  to  be  credited  to  Father  Vines,  director  of  the 
Havana  Observatory ;  it  is  considered  one  of  the  great- 
est discoveries  won  in  the  study  of  the  meteorologi- 
cal phenomena  within  recent  years.  Long  before  the 
least  sign  of  bad  weather  is   observed,  and  in  many 


CLIMATE  141 

cases  when  the  barometer  is  very  high  and  under  the 
influence  of  the  center  of  maximum  pressure  which 
usually  precedes  a  tempest,  these  small  isolated  clouds 
appear  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  banked 
up  in  the  blue  vault  of  heaven  and  stretching  away  in 
the  direction  of  some  one  point  on  the  horizon  towards 
which  they  converge.  The  foremost  are  few  in  number 
but  well  defined  and  of  the  most  delicate  structure, 
appearing  like  long  filaments  bound  together  and  be- 
coming invisible  before  reaching  the  point  of  conver- 
gence. At  the  observatory  at  Manila  they  have  been 
seen  at  times  when  the  vortex  of  the  storm  was  more 
than  six  hundred  miles  distant.  As  they  are  observed, 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  sight  and, watch  care- 
fully their  successive  movements  ;  and  the  best  time  for 
making  these  observations  is  the  moment  that  the  sun 
rises  or  sets.  When  the  sun  nears  the  eastern  horizon 
the  first  clouds  to  be  colored  by  its  rays  are  the  cirro- 
stratus, — the  heralds  of  bad  weather  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  tlie  last  to  appear  after  the  sun  has  passed 
below  the  horizon.  After  the  point  of  convergence  dur- 
ing these  moments  has  been  carefully  determined  the 
direction  of  the  position  of  the  storm  center  can  be 
approximately  fixed.  To  determine  this  with  accuracy 
as  it  moves  along,  it  is  necessary  to  estimate  at  regular 
intervals  the  points  at  which  these  cirro-stratus  clouds 
converge  and  compare  them  with  the  movements  of  the 
barometer.  By  this  means  the  general  characteristics 
of  the  storm  are  learned,  and  by  further  inquiries  of 


142  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

a  meteorological  nature,  aided  by  available  weather 
records,  practically  every  feature  of  the  disturbance  is 
discovered  and  proper  steps  taken  to  avoid  any  harm- 
ful results. 

In  general,  the  work  in  meteorolog}'  in  the  Islands 
with  the  observatory  as  the  center,  has  been  of  a  high 
grade  and  exceedingly  valuable.  The  necessity  for  con- 
tinuing this  study  of  weather  conditions  was  recognized 
by  the  American  government  at  the  outset ;  and  steps 
were  taken  to  strengthen  the  department,  as  it  had 
been  organized  under  the  Spanish  regime  by  the  Jesuit 
fathers,  by  enlarging  the  equipment  and  making  the 
observatory  the  official  weather  bureau  for  the  Islands. 
To-day  the  same  careful,  systematic  study  of  the  weather 
conditions  continues,  and  daily  and  other  periodical 
reports  upon  which  the  extensive  commercial  interests 
of  the  Islands  are  dependent  for  safety,  are  sent  out  to 
different  points  in  the  archipelago. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PUBLIC   HEALTH 

The  Spaniards  epigrammatically  describe  the  seasons 
as  consisting  of  six  months  of  dust,  six  months  of  mud, 
and  six  months  of  everything ;  and  we  might  supple- 
ment this  by  adding  that  these  seasons  are  by  no  means 
successive,  for  when  it  is  dusty  in  one  place  it  may  be 
very  muddy  in  another.  It  is  quite  a  possible  experi- 
ence, indeed,  to  find  the  soil  of  one  island  parched  by 
the  sun  and  yet  be  able  to  look  across  some  narrow 
strait  and  see  daily  storms  furnishing  nutrition  for  the 
abundant  tropical  foliage  of  a  neighboring  island.  This 
variety  and  complexity  of  physical  conditions  we  have 
already  noticed,  and  the  elfect  which  these  have  upon 
the  subject  we  are  now  considering,  that  of  public 
health,  is  naturally  obvious  ;  for  while  living  conditions 
might  be  exceedingly  favorable  in  one  place,  they  might 
be  almost  the  opposite  in  another  not  far  distant.  In 
what  we  have  to  say  here,  therefore,  we  must  observe 
the  same  caution  in  refraining  from  speaking  too  gener- 
ally, and  we  should  limit  what  we  do  say  in  any  general 
way  by  the  consciousness  that  conditions  vary  for  every 
part  of  the  archipelago,  and  hence  that  it  is  difficult  to 
lay  down  any  but  a  few  broad  directions  which  might 

143 


144  THE  PHILIPPIXE   ISLANDS 

be  of  service  in  preserving  in  this  tropical  country  the 
state  of  health  which  we  enjoy  in  the  United  States.  The 
sanest  and  truest  paragraph  that  has  been  written  upon 
this  matter  of  residence  in  the  tropics  is,  in  the  writer  s 
estimation,  the  following,  written  l^y  an  American  who 
has  lived  some  years  in  the  Islands. 

Briefly  stated,  the  facts  are  as  follows  :  if  one  is  permanently 
situated  in  a  good  locality  where  he  can  secure  suitable  food 
and  good  drinking  water,  if  he  is  scrupulously  careful  as  to  his 
diet,  avoids  excesses  of  all  Jtinds,  keeps  out  of  the  sun  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  and  refrains  from  severe  and  long-continued 
physical  exertions,  he  is  likely  to  remain  well,  always  supposing 
that  he  is  fortunate  enough  to  escape  malarial  infection.^ 

The  author  finds  himself  in  complete  accord  with 
this  view,  and  further  agrees  with  the  same  writer  that 
though  these  words  are  true  as  they  are  here  limited, 
it  is  a  different  matter  with  the  explorer,  the  engi- 
neer, the  timber  cutter,  or  an}'  other  who  would  go  into 
the  back  country  to  take  up  any  such  severe  work  as 
is  involved  in  developing  the  latent  resources  of  the 
country.  Good  food,  regular  habits,  little  or  no  drink- 
ing of  alcoholic  liquors,  no  exposure  to  the  midday  sun, 
no  undue  physical  or  mental  exertion,  and  no  worry,  — 
these  are  the  precautions  which,  if  taken,  will  make  it 
ordinarily  possilDle  for  the  white  man  to  live  for  a 
period  of  from  three  to  five  years  in  the  Philippines 
without  any  real  suffering ;  and  yet  to  fulfill  these  con- 
ditions in  the  provinces  is  often  particularl}'  difficult. 

1  Worcester,  The  Philippine  Islands. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH 


145 


Our  own  people  h.a,\e  suffered  thus  far  to  a  great 
degree  because  of  their  lack  of  adaptability;  and  it  is 
quite  true  that  the  climate  of  such  a  place  even  as 
Manila,  which  is  at  sea  level  and  which  is  intensely 
hot  with  a  high  percentage  of  humidity  during  certain 
portions  of  the  year,  is  not  harmful  to  the  constitutions 
of  healthy  Europeans    and   Americans,   provided  that 


Xativk   Shack   in  Malate 

they  immediately  choose  a  mode  of  living  that  is  suit- 
able to  the  country,  and  in  the  matters  of  clothing, 
diet,  habits,  and  recreations  adapt  themselves  to  the 
new  conditions.  x\mericans  as  a  rule  have  felt  that 
they  could  eat,  drink,  sleep,  and  work  just  as  at  home, 
but  the  results  unfortunately  have  convinced  many 
of  their  error.  The  doctrine  of  the  strenuous  life  has 
no  place  in  the  tropics ;  the  simple  mode  of  living  is 
a   much   wiser  one.    Furtlier    tlian    this,   persons  over 


146  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

forty-five  years  of  age  (a  limit  which  is  also  set  by  civil- 
service  requirements)  and  those  with  any  chronic  trouble 
should  not  go  to  the  Philippines  wdth  the  view  of  living 
there  for  any  extended  length  of  time.  It  is  one  of  the 
worst  places  in  the  world  for  consumptives ;  it  is  not  good 
for  people  with  catarrhal  troubles  or  weak  eyes ;  nor  is 
it  to  be  recommended  for  people  who  are  suffering  from 
indigestion  or  possessed  of  shattered  nervous  systems. 

Persons  who  are  planning  to  go  to  the  Islands  gener- 
ally read  up  about  the  conditions  of  life  in  Manila,  and 
do  not  realize  sufhciently  that  residence  in  the  provinces, 
however  comfortable  it  may  be  made,  is  still  very  differ- 
ent from  what  it  is  in  the  capital.  This  difference  is  by 
no  means  as  great  as  it  was  before  the  coming  of  the 
Americans,  yet  it  is  sufficient  to  act  as  a  warning 
against  accepting  as  true  for  the  back  country  the 
descriptions  concerning  Manila  itself.  The  conditions 
outside  are  such  as  to  make  the  writer  feel  warranted 
in  predicting  that  no  extensive  settlements  of  Ameri- 
cans in  the  archipelago  are  likely  to  be  made  for  years 
to  come,  if  ever ;  extensive  colonization  by  us  seems  to 
be  precluded. 

No  general  statement  can  be  made  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy  concerning  the  effect  of  the  Philippine  cli- 
mate upon  an  American  ;  so  much  depends  upon  the  con- 
stitution and  character  of  the  individual,  the  locality 
in  the  United  States  from  which  he  comes,  —  whether 
New  England  or  Texas,  —  the  place  in  the  Islands  where 
he  is  to  take  up  his  residence,  the  work  that  he  is  going- 


PUBLIC  HEALTH 


147 


to  follow,  and  the  fact  that  he  has  or  has  not  his  family 
with  him  and  is  to  be  surrounded  by  the  precautions 
and  care  of  a  good  housekeeper.  Home  life  and  strength 
of  character  to  do  certain  things,  such  as  taking  exer- 
cise, and  to  refrain  from  doing  other  things,  such  as 
overeating  or  exposing  one's  self  to  the  sun,  are  the 
two  prime  conditions  for  a  comfortable  existence  in  the 


The  Chosen  PLAVGRorND  for  Two  Schools,  Concepcion 

tropics.  There  is  no  doubt  that  from  the  first  the  hot 
months  of  April,  May,  and  June  are  generally  trying 
to  every  American.  The  air  at  this  time  is  steamy 
and  sticky  with  the  closeness  and  heaviness  which  we 
associate  at  home  with  a  hothouse  atmosphere.  The 
so-called  ''  temperate  months,"  again,  afford  no  bracing 
change,  and  thus  in  time  the  never-ending  sunnner 
debilitates  one. 

In  Manila  the  nights  are  found  to  be  cooler  than  the 
days,  due  to  breezes  from  the  bay,  and  refreshing  sleep 


148  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLxVXDS 

is  possible.  A  siesta  after  lunch,  or  tiffin,  as  it  is  called, 
is  taken  by  nearly  every  one,  even  Americans.  The  air- 
less character  of  the  atmosphere  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  hot  season  makes  it  particularly  difficult  for  those 
who  are  in  poor  health  or  overtired.  Hitherto  it  has 
not  been  easy  to  get  away  from  Manila  to  the  purer  air 
of  the  hills,  and  there  are  no  short  trips  possible  from 
the  capital  over  Saturday  and  Sunday,  which  would  fur- 
nish much  relief.  When  a  man  has  finished  the  day's 
work  in  the  tropics  he  is  usually  fagged  out  and  listless, 
and  desires  nothing  so  much  as  the  cool  veranda  and 
the  thinnest  of  clothing.  The  change  from  the  northern 
temperate  climate  of  the  United  States  to  the  tropical 
one  of  the  Philippines  is  invariably  severe,  and  to  the 
writer's  knowledge  there  is  no  one  who  has  gone  to  the 
Islands  from  any  of  the  northern  states  wlio  has  not 
suffered  annoyance  of  some  sort.  Evil  consequences 
of  this  change  of  climate  may  be  felt  at  the  begin- 
ning of  one's  stay  or  after  several  years'  residence,  or 
even  in  rare  cases  after  a  return  to  the  United  States. 
Dengue  fever,  a  disease  somewhat  akin  to  malaria,  is 
common  during  this  period  of  acclimation.  Nearly 
every  one,  too,  suffers  from  prickly  heat,  a  rash  which 
breaks  out  over  the  body,  sometimes  lasting  for  months. 
Other  more  serious  diseases  unfortunately  are  within 
the  range  of  possibility  if  a  certain  amount  of  care  is 
not  exercised. 

Cleanliness  attained  b}^  the  daily  bath  is  absolutely 
essential  to  good  health.    All  water,  furthermore,  should 


PUBLIC   HEALTH 


149 


be  boiled  or  distilled  in  order  to  be  able  to  drink  it  with 
imjiunity.  Clothes  washed  in  ordinary  unboiled  water 
are  sure  to  contain  germs  which  give  rise  to  a  skin 
disease  known  as  "  dhobie  itch,"  which  is  extremely 
annoying  and  disagreeable  and  often  contracted  in  spite 
of  all  precautions. 

Among  the  innumerable  variety  of  insects  to  contend 
with,  the  ever-present  mosquito  is  foremost,  and  no  one 
thinks  of  sleeping  without  a  suspended  netting  care- 
fully tucked  in  on  all  sides.    Ants  exist  in  great  variety 


Homes  of  Poorer  Class  ox  Piles  near  a  Caxal,  Concepcion 

and  profusion,  and  they  are  ready  to  take  immediate 
possession  of  all  eatables  not  properly  protected.  But 
worse  even  than  the  mosquito  is  the  Phihppine  house  fly, 
although  he  appears  only  intermittently,  for  he  sticks  to 
you  as  if  he  were  glued  and  is  often  the  source  of  much 
irritation.  Cockroaches  of  immense  size  skip  across  your 
floors  and  eat  the  bindings  off  your  books ;  lizards  crawl 
over  your  walls,  but  after  the  first  impressions  are  for- 
gotten their  chirp  becomes  a  cheerful  sound ;  spiders 
take   up   their  abode   in   the   bath   rooms;    and   many 


150  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

other  insects,  their  species  varying  at  times  according 
to  the  locality,  inhabit  shoes,  chests,  and  other  possible 
places  around  the  house.  Yet  it  is  very  easy  for  a  good 
housekeeper  to  minimize  these  discomforts,  and  it  takes 
a  comparatively  short  time  to  get  used  to  them,  espe- 
cially if  one  starts  out  at  the  beginning  to  make  the 
best  of  things.  On  the  whole,  life  in  the  Islands  is  not 
uncomfortable  ;  the  experience  is  interesting,  the  daily 
happenings  absorbing,  and  there  is  a  charm  about  it  all 
that  is  indescribable. 

Now  that  the  opinion  of  the  writer  has  been  given, 
let  us  turn  to  the  views  of  others  wlio  have  been  in  the 
Islands  and  see  how  nearly  they  coincide.  The  opinion 
of  a  physician,^  who  has  lived  for  a  long  time  in  the 
Orient  and  who  was  charged  by  certain  insurance  com- 
panies in  the  United  States  to  investigate  the  health 
conditions  of  the  Philippines  and  their  suitability  for 
occupation  by  Americans,  is  that  an"  American  of  temper- 
ate habits  who  is  about  to  reside  in  the  Philippines  is  a 
"  fair  risk."  The  climate,  in  his  estimation,  is  salubrious 
as  compared  with  other  tropical  countries  ;  and  although 
the  Islands  are  subjected  to  the  diseases  which  are  com- 
mon to  the  adjacent  districts  of  Asia,  particularly  bubonic 
plague,  Asiatic  cholera,  beriberi,  leprosy,  dysenter}*,  and 
various  malarial  fevers,  —  epidemics  which  obey  no  law 
of  periodicity,  —  yet  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  these 
may  not  be  avoided  by  prudent  sanitary  precautions.  In 
the  opinion  of  the  writer,  however,  the  actuaries  of  the 

1  Robert  .J.  Sloan,  M.D.,  resident  at  Shanghai. 


PU15LIC    HEALTH 


151 


largest  insurance  companies  are  not  following  tins  phy- 
sician's conclusions,  as  testified  by  the  fact  that  from 
forty  to  one  hundred  per  cent  is  charged  as  an  additional 
annual  premium  by  the  majority  of  these  companies. 

An  observing  school-teacher  in  an  interesting  account 
of  the  effect  upon  a  person  of  residence  in  the  Islands 


After  School,  Concepcion 

mentions  the  loss  of  memory  as  particularly  noticeable, 
and  this  is  literally  true,  as  can  be  testified  from  per- 
sonal experience;  loss  of  ability  to  spell  is  another 
effect.  It  has  been  the  opinion  of  the  writer  from  the 
beginning  that  the  climate  was  indeed  largely  responsible 
for  most  of  the  pessimistic  reports  sent  home  to  our 
papers  concerning  conditions  and  doings  in  the  Islands. 


152  THE   PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

Caucasians  grow  pessimistic  and  suspicious  after  a  few- 
years'  stay ;  and  those  who  do  not  stand  the  climate  are 
apt  to  become  hypersensitive  and  hypercritical.  Yet 
discomforts  and  hardships  of  pioneer  work  are  what 
try  men's  souls,  and  those  who  stick  to  their  ideals 
soon  accustom  themselves  to  these  difficulties  and  fnid 
great  enjoyment  in  the  work  because  it  is  of  such  a  novel 
and  missionary  nature.  As  Commissioner  of  Education 
^Y.  T.  Harris  has  said,  "A  person  that  is  not  always 
ready  to  Ije  born  again  upon  a  week's  notice  has  no 
business  to  go  abroad  and  undertake  missionary  work 
in  a  foreign  land." 

The  effect  which  the  climate  has  upon  moral  char- 
acter is  a  question  that  should  properly  be  left  to  those 
whose  interests  qualify  them  to  speak  with  accuracy 
upon  this  matter ;  and  yet  it  is  almost  impossil^le  to  pass 
such  a  subject  without  mentioning  the  unfortunate  com- 
bination of  conditions  which  makes  it  so  easy  for  persons 
to  become  heedless  of  the  restraints  which  they  would  be 
wont  to  exercise  at  home  and  in  their  recklessness  to  go 
into  excesses  of  different  sorts.  The  distance  from  home, 
the  climatic  influences,  the  lack  of  sufficient  means  of 
harmless  entertainment,  the  general  freedom  and  easi- 
ness of  the  life,  -^  all  tend  to  encourage  a  departure  from 
that  standard  which  had  hitherto  been  maintained. 

The  following  extract  from  the  first  report  of  the 
Taft  Commission  bearing  upon  this  question  of  public 
health,  gives  a  calm  statement  of  facts  officially  pre- 
sented, and  is  therefore  helpful  in  understanding  these 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  153 

conditions  in  the  Islands.  It  is  perhaps  based  upon  too 
short  a  period  of  observation. 

That  health  conditions  are,  on  the  whole,  suprisingly  good  in 
the  Philippines  is  conclusively  demonstrated  by  comparing  the 
sick  reports  of  our  troops  while  in  camp  in  the  United  States  with 
the  reports  for  the  time  during  which  they  have  been  engaged  in 
active  service  in  the  Philippines.  It  is  believed  by  this  commis- 
sion that  no  tropical  islands  in  the  world  enjoy  a  better  climate 
tban  do  the  Philippines.  While  this  is  true,  two  classes  of  dis- 
eases have  to  be  reckoned  with  here.  These  are,  first,  diseases 
common  to  temperate  and  tropical  countries,  and  second,  dis- 
eases especially  characteristic  of  the  latter  regions.  Under  the 
former  head  would  fall  smallpox,  cholera,  bubonic  plague,  and 
leprosy  ;  .  .  .  (under  the  latter)  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  malarial 
troubles,  and  beriberi. 

The  report  later  recommends  the  establishment  at  Ben- 
guet,  a  province  of  some  five  thousand  feet  elevation  in 
northern  Luzon,  of  a  summer  resort  for  the  recuper- 
ation of  those  government  officials  who  from  the  effects 
of  the  climate  become  run  down.  This  recommenda- 
tion was  later  realized  by  an  act  of  the  commission  mak- 
ing this  place  a  summer  home  for  Americans  and  the 
seat  of  government  during  the  hot  months.  Benguet 
has  thus  become  the  summer  capital  of  the  archiioel- 
ago  and  a  genuine  health  resort  for  those  connected 
with  the  government  service.  The  climate,  temper- 
ate in  character,  is  a  delightful  change  from  that  of 
Manila  and  vicinity;  and  the  cooler,  cloudier  atmos- 
phere makes  outdoor  life  and  exercise  possible  and 
furnishes  just  that  stimulating  force  which  is  never 
found  in  the  capital.    Pine  woods  and  rugged  mountain 


154  THE   riilLiri'JNE   JSL\N])S 

scenery  suggest  our  northern  country  at  home  and  pro- 
vide excellent  opportunities  for  exercise  by  walking 
and  climbing.  Baguio  is  the  region  chosen  for  this 
resort,  and  by  this  time  it  contains  a  number  of  sub- 
stantial houses  for  use  during  this  summer  season, 
stores  with  the  limited  supplies,  government  buildings, 
and,  most  important  of  all,  a  well-equipped  sanitarium. 
The  distance  to  the  nearest  point  on  the  railroad  con- 
necting with  Manila  is  some  thirty-five  miles,  with  a 
horse  trail  the  only  road  over  the  mountains.  A  gov- 
ernment road,  however,  is  in  course  of  construction  up 
through  a  river  gorge,  and  although  a  great  deal  of 
money  and  time  and  engineering  skill  are  yet  required 
before  its  completion,  owing  to  the  almost  insuperable 
natural  difficulties,  when  it  is  completed  this  summer 
capital,  the  Simla  of  the  PhilijDpines,  can  be  reached 
in  a  day's  journey  from  Manila. 

The  sui'geon  general  of  the  United  States  army  dif- 
fered somewhat  from  the  opinion  ex^^ressed  in  the 
report  of  the  Taft  Commission  as  to  the  effect  of  the 
climate  upon  the  health  of  the  soldiers.  He  claimed 
that  it  is  enervating  to  the  body  and  depressing  to  the 
mind,  and  recommended,  therefore,  as  a  measure  of 
humanity,  that  the  term  of  service  of  a  soldier  be  lim- 
ited to  three  years  at  the  most,  while  two  years  he 
considered  a  more  prudent  maximum  term. 

An  American  physician,  formerly  in  the  army  and 
now  practicing  his  profession  in  the  Cagayan  valley  of 
northern  Luzon,  in  a  letter  concerning  the  conditions 


155 


156  THE  rillLiPPlNE   ISLANDS 

there,  urged  as  one  of  the  foremost  needs  an  improve- 
ment in  sanitation  and  hygiene  in  the  various  towns. 
He  mentioned  the  death  rate  of  four  or  five  persons  a 
day  in  a  town  of  not  more  than  four  thousand  population, 
caused  b}'  malarial  fever,  summer  complaint,  and  the  like, 
in  the  dry  season,  and  by  cold  and  poor  nourishment  in 
the  wet  months, — a  record  that  is  not  extraordinary.  It 
is  unfortunately  true  that  native  medical  skill  in  the 
provinces  is  of  no  A^ery  high  order,  and  on  this  account 
the  death  rate  among  infants  is  unnecessarily  high. 
Owing  to  the  climate  of  the  country,  fevers  and  intes- 
tinal disorders  are  also  common,  bnt  generally  are  not 
serious,  with  the  exception  of  dysentery,  which  has 
proved  to  be  a  dangerous  trouble  to  foreigners,  many 
of  whom  have  died  from  its  effects. 

Of  the  most  serious  epidemics  both  bubonic  plague 
and  cholera  have  occurred  since  the  American  occupa- 
tion, with  results  that  have  been  exceedingly  unfortu- 
nate, particularly  in  the  case  of  the  latter.  Shortly  after 
the  coming  of  the  Americans  the  plague  broke  out  in 
the  city  of  Manila  in  certain  quarters,  where  filthy  con- 
ditions gave  the  growth  of  the  disease  every  encourage- 
ment. It  seized  upon  the  Chinese  and  lower  classes  of 
Filipinos,  and  was  spread  by  rats  carrying  the  infection. 
A  systematic  campaign  was  at  once  directed  against 
these  creatures  and  sanitary  conditions  were  improved, 
with  the  result  that  after  a  run  of  something  over  a 
year,  in  March,  1902,  the  disease  was  wiped  out  with 
a  comparatively  small  loss  of  life. 


PUBLIC  HEALTH 


157 


Almost  immediately  cholera  appeared,  and  because  of 
the  awful  havoc  it  made  in  the  archipelago  it  will  long 
be  remembered.  The 
total  number  of  cases  for 
the  year^  was  123,000, 
with  over  70,000  deaths, 
a  mortality  of  more  than 
sixty-five  per  cent.  Dur- 
ing the  awful  ravages  of 
this  epidemic  work  of 
the  grandest  sort  was 
done  by  the  Americans 
in  the  insular,  provincial, 
and  municipal  bureaus 
of  health  in  the  Islands. 
Examples  of  self-sacrifice 
that  have  seldom  been 
surpassed  were  here  wit- 
nessed and  a  zeal  dis- 
played for  the  welfare 
of  the  natives  that  has 
been  rarely  equaled. 
Volunteers  came  from 
all  sides  to  the  rescue 
of  these  ignorant  people, 

J    •,  1        J.      J.1     •  School  Attike,  Coxcepcion 

and  it  was  due  to  their 

efforts  that  thousands  of  lives  were  saved  by  enforcing 

some  of  the  common  principles  of  sanitation,  which  were 

1  From  March  to  December,  1902. 


158  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

unknown  to  the  natives  themselves.  The  work  carried  on 
was  indeed  a  vahiable  object  lesson  to  the  Filipinos,  — 
one,  however,  that  was  almost  misunderstood  at  times ; 
for,  as  in  a  cholera  outbreak  of  the  past,  the  foreigners 
were  accused  of  poisoning  the  wells,  and  the  most  absurd 
tales  gained  credence  among  the  lower  classes,  which  led 
to  the  concealment  of  the  sick,  the  escape  of  the  infected, 
and  the  throwing  of  dead  bodies  into  rivers,  the  polluted 
waters  of  which  were  fruitful  sources  of  infection. 
With  such  opposition  on  the  part  of  these  people,  and 
with  the  hostility  of  Spanish  and  native  physicians,  and 
even  sometimes  of  church  authorities,  the  Americans 
had  to  contend  in  the  work ;  yet  by  prompt  action, 
careful  study,  and  strict  surveillance  of  infected  dis- 
tricts the  scourge  was  finally  stayed,  and  steps  were 
taken  towards  preventing  permanently  its  reappearance 
on  the  extensive  scale  which  it  had  reached. 

In  general,  life  in  this  tropical  land  may  be  made 
much  more  comfortable  and  tolerable  by  the  observance 
of  a  few  rules  as  to  dress  and  conduct,  and  freedom  from 
many  of  the  common  complaints  may  thus  be  enjoyed. 

The  invigo ration  of  the  four-  or  five-minute  shower 
bath  is  a  good  beginning  for  withstanding  the  wearying 
and  wearing  dog-dayish  air,  and  a  second  shower  before 
retiring  without  any  strenuous  rubbing  of  the  skin  is 
refreshing  and  sleep  conducing. 

As  to  clothing,  the  thinnest  underclothing,  probably 
white  linen  mesh,  —  a  material  that  is  easily  permeable 
by  air  and  moisture, — should  be  worn;  and  next  best  to 


PUBLIC  HEALTH 


159 


this  is  cotton.  Changes  should  be  frequent  and  strict 
cleanliness  observed;  if  comfort  is  of  any  account,  the 
laundry  Ijill  should  not  be  considered.  All  articles  which 
come  in  direct  contact  with  the  skin  should  be  changed 
as  often  as  they  become  soiled;  the  sense  of  cleanli- 
ness itself  is  cooling  and  tends  to  a  feeling  of  self-respect. 


Washing  Clothes  in  Cagayan  River 

An  abdominal  band  should  be  worn  to  protect  the 
internal  organs  in  case  of  sudden  changes  in  the  tem- 
perature, the  material  to  be  the  thinnest  Jaeger  flannel, 
and  the  l)and  to  be  changed  frequently.  Thin,  white 
cotton  stockings  are  the  only  ones  permissible;  and 
shoes  sufficiently  large  should  be  thin  soled  and  of  can- 
vas or  other  porous  material.  White,  openworked  stock- 
ings are  suitable  for  women,  while  children  should  wear 
none;  —  simply  the  heelless  sandals  now  so  popular. 


160  THE  PHlLirriNE   ISLANDS 

The  suit  should  be  of  white  drilling  or  some  similar 
material,  and  the  coat  should  button  up,  naval  fashion, 
to  the  neck  and  have  a  low  standing  collar.  Nothing 
should  be  worn  over  the  undershirt,  unless  possibly  a 
negligee  shirt  ;  with  a  nicely  laundered  cotton  suit 
cuffs  and  collars  may  be  omitted.  For  women  the  ideal 
costume  is  a  low-necked  dress  of  the  thinnest  white 
muslin  or  organdie,  with,  elbow  sleeves,  no  gloves,  and 
no  hat.  No  clothing  should  be  worn  which  constricts  or 
unduly  confines  any  part  of  the  l)ody ;  there  should  be 
free  circulation  of  the  blood  and  air  as  well  as  prompt 
evaporation  of  the  perspiration ;  thus  loose,  open- 
meshed  clothing  is  best.  Belts,  waist  and  skirt  bands, 
and  impermeable  corsets  are  tabooed ;  lower  garments 
should  be  suspended  from  the  shoulders.  A  loosely 
fitting  Panama  hat  without  any  sweat  l^and  is  the  most 
comfortable  and  is  also  the  most  hygienic,  for  it  can  be 
washed  frequently. 

Little  drinking  should  be  done,  and  if  one  must  drink, 
cooled  and  not  iced  drinks  should  be  used ;  iced  tea 
and  coffee  and  all  alcoholic  drinks  should  be  avoided. 
If  one  must  have  ice,  let  it  be  chopped  ice ;  sherbets  are 
all  right,  but  it  is  a  good  rule  to  keep  away  from  the 
soda  fountain.  During  the  hottest  weather  one  should 
be  scrupvdously  careful  of  his  diet,  avoid  rich,  hearty 
foods,  and  not  overeat.  Salads,  fresh  fruits,  and  eggs 
are  good  foods  for  this  climate. 

Exercise  should  be  taken  before  or  after  the  heat  of 
the  dav;  and  durinsji:  tliis  time  the  sun  sliould  ho.  avoided. 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  161 

If  one  is  obliged  to  be  out,  a  pongee  silk  sun  umbrella 
with  a  green  lining  may  be  carried. 

One  should  take  things  easily  and  not  get  excited 
over  trivial  matters.  As  the  expression  is,  the  "heat 
gets  on  the  nerves,"  and  httle  annoyances  are  greatly 
magnified. 

As  much  sleep  as  possible  should  be  taken ;  and 
from  our  Philippine  brothers  we  may  well  learn  that 
the  afternoon  siesta  helps  in  combating  the  effects  of  a 
hot  da}^  This  means  for  the  busy  man  a  short  nap  of 
ten  minutes,  the  beneficial  part  of  which  lies  in  the  few 
minutes'  complete  relaxation  of  the  nervous  system. 
American  women  in  Manila  adopt  completely  the  tropi- 
cal custom  of  undressing  and  going  to  bed,  and  are  not 
expected  to  receive  or  make  calls  until  five  o'clock. 

The  wardrobe  of  every  woman  should  contain  at 
least  one  attractive  negligee  costume  so  useful  and  so 
comuion  in  the  East, — the  silk  kimono  of  the  Japanese 
or  the  neutral-colored  sarong  of  the  Javanese.  The 
housekeeper  found  in  such  a  costume  on  a  hot  after- 
noon should  not  be  looked  upon  as  slack  or  immodest, 
but  rather  as  appropriately  dressed,  —  a  practice  that 
runs  counter  to  the  ideas  of  our  New  England  grand- 
mothers, but  one  which  comports  well  with  conditions 
in  the  Philippines. 

The  night  clothing  for  men  should  consist  of  a  suit 
of  pajamas,  which  ought  to  be  of  wool,  a  material  that 
in  the  tropics  best  protects  the  wearer  from  the  chilling 
of  the  surface  of  the  body  during  sleep;   but  if  this  is 


162  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

objected   to   in   such  a  climate,  they  may  be  made  of 
linen  mesh. 

If  people  would  only  let  common  sense  instead  of 
petty  convention  dictate  what  they  should  wear  and 
how  they  should  live,  they  would  find  hot  weather  more 
tolerable  and  themselves  and  those  around  them  happier ; 
and  such  is  the  principle  to  be  observed  especially  in 
these  tropical  islands. 


CHAPTER   VII 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Without  a  clear  understanding  of  the  physical  aspects, 
the  climate,  and  the  products  of  the  Islands,  there  can 
l)e  no  satisfactory  treatment  of  the  extent  and  scope  of 
Philippine  trade  and  its  future  prospects.  Like  many 
tropical  countries,  with 
their  beauty,  their  fertil- 
ity, and  their  innate  re- 
soiu-ces,  the  Islands  may 
well  symbolize  the  dia- 
mond in  the  rough.  And 
yet,  admitting  the  exist- 
ence of  this  great  natural 
wealth,  the  staggering 
question   follows,  Is   it 

•1     11      o      ITT  •  T  T     ,-[  Native  Sailboat 

available  :     \V  ill  the 

Philippines  pa\-  ?  is  the  usual  form  of  the  inquiry.    This 

question  we  are  as  yet  a  long  way  from  answering,  but 

as  a  preparation  for  later  discussion  of  the  topic,  let  us 

look  into  the  matter  from  the  standpoint  of  commercial 

geography. 

Certain  facts  we  have  already  learned,  —  the  distance 
from    America,   the    extensive   water   area  within  the 

16.3 


164  THE  PHILIPPTXE  ISLANDS 

archipelago  limits,  and  the  comparatively  small  amomit 
of  land  surface.  AYe  know  that  if  we  could  look  down 
upon  the  group  we  should  find  the  whole  made  up  of 
some  dozen  large  islands,  each  surrounded  by  numerous 
smaller  ones,  and  each  of  the  former  traversed  by 
one  or  more  spinelike  ranges  of  mountains.  With  the 
fertility  of  soil,  due  to  the  volcanic  origin,  we  are 
acquainted ;  if  we  could  examine  it  closely,  we  should 
find  it  of  a  dark,  reddish-brown  color,  composed  of  dis- 
integrated lava  mixed  with  deca3'ed  vegetation.  On 
the  slopes  this  soil  is  rendered  extremely  productive 
by  the  tropical  rains,  and  a  heavy  luxuriant  vegetation 
is  the  result.    On  the  other  band,  this  rain  pom^s  down 


Bamboo  Bridge,  Morong,  IIizal 


into  the  plains  and  valleys  and  makes  iimumerable 
rivers,  swamps,  and  lakes ;  not  all  regions  are  equally 
favored,  nor  is  the  supply  uniform  throughout  the  year  ; 
there  are  floods  and  droughts,  and  until  this  sm-plus 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGKAPHY 


165 


water  can  be  controlled  and  stored  for  purposes  of  irri- 
gation loss  of  crops  and  famines  will  result. 

The  water  buffalo,  or  carabao,  is  an  animal  for  which 
no  substitute  can  be  found  for  the  work  in  the  field  and 


Plowing  Rice  Paddy 

the  heavy  drays  on  the  road  ;  yet  dm-ing  the  past  three 
years  rinderpest,  an  epidemic  among  the  cattle,  has 
destroyed  ninety  per  cent  of  these  strong  beasts ;  and 
glanders  and  surra  have  taken  off  the  horses.  Both 
locusts  and  typhoons  have  proved  disastrous  to  the 
crops ;  and  plague,  cholera,  and  smallpox  have  caused 
the  death  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  people.  The 
tropical  climate  breeds  indolence,  hence  there  is  a  lack 
of  willing  labor  at  the  outset ;  while  on  account  of  the 
climate  American  laljor  in  the  fields  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. The  great  distance  of  the  field  of  investment 
and  the  unwillingness  to  invest  where  Americans  can- 
not become  permanent  residents  may  operate  to  keep 
capital  out.  Ladrones,  or  brigands,  intimidate  the  peo- 
ple and  in  interior  districts  prevent  the  pursuit  of  the 


166  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

ordinary  vocations ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  this 
ladronism  can  be  stamped  out  completely  as  long  as 
those  engaged  in  it  can  flee  to  the  mountain  fastnesses 
for  refuge.  The  majority  of  the  towns  are  on  the 
coast  and  often  separated  l)y  great  distances.  There  is 
only  one  railroad  in  the  archipelago,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  in  length,  connecting  Manila  with  the 
port  of  Dagupan  to  the  north ;  nor  do  the  physical 
features  of  the  country  invite  extension  of  railway 
communication,  for  numberless  streams,  which  become 
torrents  in  the  rainy  season,  would  necessitate  the  con- 
struction of  iimumeraljle  strong  Ijridges,  and  tlie  cost  of 
maintenance  owing  to  the  ravages  of  severe  rains  would 
be  heavy.  Thus  trade,  although  an  economic  question, 
has  its  geographical  aspect. 

The  question  of  interisland  communication  is  a  seri- 
ous one.  The  coast  line  of  the  Islands,  estimated  to  be 
11,444  miles,  includes  numerous  gulfs,  bays,  and  ports 
offering  excellent  anchorage  but  few  good  harbors. 
Manila  itself,  with  a  harbor  spacious  enough  to  shelter 
the  fleets  of  the  world,  has  urgent  need  for  the  improve- 
ments now  nearing  completion  to  insure  safety  to  ves- 
sels. Traffic  between  the  islands  has  been  seriously 
interrupted  by  the  unsettled  conditions  of  the  country 
due  to  the  insmTections,  and  more  recently  by  the  quar- 
antine restrictions  placed  upon  shij^ping  during  the 
prevalence  of  cholera.  The  facilities  for  this  trade  are 
inadequate  and  unsatisfactory ;  Spanish  boats  with  a 
conspicuous   lack   of   cleanliness   run   irregularly,   and 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


107 


English  vessels,  again,  are  not  what  might  reasonably 
be  expected. 

The  rivers  afford  the  chief  means  of  transporting 
heavy  products  from  the  interior  to  the  seaboard.  In 
Luzon  the  Cagayan  is  navigable  for  a  distance  of 
seventy-five  miles  by  craft  of  a  certain  construction, 
though  the  course  is  greatly  impeded  by  fallen  timber, 
trees,   and  debris    which    come    floating    dow^n   durincr 


Water  Buffalo 

the  rainy  season.  The  Abra,  Agno,  Pampanga,  and 
Pasig  are  likewise  navigable  for  part  of  their  distance 
by  smaller  craft ;  and  what  is  true  of  Luzon  is  also 
the  case  of  each  of  the  other  large  islands.  There  are 
almost  no  rivers  with  clear  entrances  and  channels 
sufficient  for  boats  of  any  size ;  and  until  recently  no 
attempt  had  been  made  to  improve  these  w^ater  courses. 
Similarly  on  land  there  is  difficulty  in  getting  about, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  good  roads.    The  so-called  general 


168  THE   PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

highways  are  little  less  tliau  impassable  iu  the  rainy 
season  not  only  by  reason  of  cL\y,  mud,  and  washouts 
but  because  of  the  lack  of  bridges.  Once  roads  are 
built  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them  in  repair ;  many  excel- 
lent ones,  however,  constructed  by  the  military  authori- 
ties are  now  maintained  by  the  provincial  officials,  and 
others  are  being  laid  out  and  bridges  built  as  far  as 
limited  funds  will  permit.  This  work  has  but  begun, 
and  in  many  places  the  horse  trail  is  still  the  only  road  ; 
indeed,  one  of  the  prime  causes  of  the  stationary  char- 
acter of  Filipino  civilization  in  its  various  phases,  and  of 
the  marked  philological  differences,  has  been  this  want 
of  proper  ways  of  intercommunication. 

Under  such  conditions  the  difficulties  with  which 
the  postal  service  throughout  the  archipelago  has  been 
conducted  may  be  surmised ;  yet  it  has  been  as  fully 
organized  as  the  facilities  permit  and  is  being  constantly 
extended  in  response  to  the  demands  of  business  and 
administrative  interests.  A  fleet  of  small  vessels  recently 
built  is  now  at  the  disposal  of  the  Insular  Government, 
and  is  of  great  benefit  in  carrying  on  the  interisland 
government  business,  including  mail,  transportation  of 
officials  and  employees,  and  doing  special  work  for  the 
various  bureaus. 

Since  the  last  of  August,  1898,  the  date  of  the 
American  occupancy,  the  signal  corps  of  the  army  has 
constructed  some  nine  thousand  miles  of  telegraph,  tele- 
phone, and  submarine  cable  lines  in  the  Islands ;  and  thus 
a  means  of  prompt  communication,  and  consequently 


CO.MMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  16'J 

executive  control,  from  the  very  northern  point  of 
Luzon  to  Siassi  in  the  extreme  south,  close  to  Borneo, 
connecting  all  the  important  islands  except  Palawan, 
is  afforded.  In  addition  to  these  military  telegraph  and 
cable  systems  are  the  lines  of  the  Eastern  Extension 
and  China  Telegraph  Company,  approximating  some 
six  hundred  miles  in  length  and  joining  Luzon,  Panay, 
Negros,  and  Cebii.  A  transpacific  cable  nearly  eight 
thousand  miles  long,  from  San  Francisco  by  way  of 
Honolulu  and  Guam  to  Manila,  has  lately  been  com- 
pleted, thus  establishing  with  the  home  country  a  direct 
connection  the  importance  of  which  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  The  service  hitherto  by  way  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  the  Atlantic  was  not  only  slower  and  more 
expensive  but  was  without  our  control  and  hence  not 
trustworthy  in  critical  moments. 

Commercial  Products 

Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  products  of 
the  Islands,  we  find  that  Manila  hemp,  tobacco,  sugar, 
copra  for  export,  and  rice  for  home  consumption  are 
the  staple  ones  ;  while  coffee,  chocolate,  corn,  and  indigo 
are  also  produced  in  quantities.  Sugar  was  for  a  long 
time  the  chief  article  of  export,  and,  indeed,  it  is  related 
that  much  of  that  used  by  the  Forty-niners  of  California 
was  the  Philippine  product ;  it  was  later  superseded 
in  importance  by  the  so-called  hemp,  which  became 
the  principal  Philippine  product  known  to  the  outside 
world. 


170 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


This  fiber,  coiTecth'  speaking,  is  not  hemp  at  all,  and 
does  not  belong  to  the  flax  fan)ily,  Ijut  is  ol^tained  from 
a  species  of  the  plantain  gronp  called  abaca.^  Its  trunk 
and  leaves  resemble  the  banana  tree  so  closely  that 
the  two  can  with  difficulty  be  distinguished  Ijy  the  ordi- 
nary person.  The  Ijody  may  be  pulled  apart  as  easily 
as  a  vegetable  stalk,  while  only  an  ordinary  knife  is 


Hemp  Ready  for  Exportation 


required  to  cut  it  down  and  a  very  crude  implement 
to  shred  the  fiber.  Althouo;h  efforts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  the  tree  into  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  other 
eastern  islands,  they  have  been  without  results ;  it 
grows  nowhere  else  in  the  world,  and  even  in  the  Islands 
its  cultivation  is  limited  to  those  regions  where  the  soil 
is  open  and  moist  but  not  swampy.  Southern  Luzon. 
Samar,  and  Leyte  are  the  centers  of  the  industry,  though 

1  Musa  textilis. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


171 


in  general  the  Pacific  slopes  of  the  Islands  are  thus 
naturally  adapted  to  the  plant,  and  with  tlie  expendi- 
ture of  a  iiiiuimum  amount  of  labor  and  care  thousands 
of  tons  of  the  liber  are  produced  annually  in  these 
regions,  while  much  is  to  be  found  growing  wild.  It  is 
exported  principally  to  the  United  States  and  England 
either  in  its  raw  state  or  in  the  form  of  rope  and  cord- 
age. The  annual  return  to  an  owner  of  an  abaca  plan- 
tation is  from  twenty -five  to  thirty  per  cent ;  and  this 


Hemp  Market,  Cebu 

with  the  use  of  such  primitive  instruments  as  are  now 
employed,  involving  waste  both  of  material  and  of  time. 
With  the  advent  of  a  machine  invented  by  American 
mechanical  genius  for  accelerating  and  economizing  the 
process  of  preparing  this  important  article  of  commerce 
for  the  market,  an  increase  in  profits  and  a  new  era  in 
the  industry  will  be  realized. 

Tobacco  is  the  next  best  known  and  characteristic 
product,  and  the  quality  of  the  leaf  is  excelled  only  by 


172 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


that  of  the  Havana  plant.  Much  of  it  has  a  disagree- 
able, dry,  pungent  flavor,  particularly  that  used  in  the 
cheaper  cigars  and  cigarettes,  a  liking  for  which  can  be 


Rope  ^Making,  jMaxila 

only  an  acquired  taste.  The  people,  however,  become 
acquainted  with  it  at  the  earliest  j)ossible  age,  and 
indeed  it  is  not  an  altogether  uncommon  sight  to  see 
infants  given  cigarettes  to  suck  immediately  after  they 
have  been  fed  at  the  breast.  The  cheroots  smoked  by  the 
poorer  classes  are  of  immense  size  and  are  passed  round 
from  mouth  to  mouth  in  the  family  group.  After  each 
has  had  a  sufficiency  the  stump  is  put  aside  for  future 
enjoyment,  or,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  among  the  moun- 
tain tribes,  it  is  stuck  into  the  pierced  lobe  of  the  ear 
like  an  earring. 

As  every  one  is  a  smoker,  —  men,  women,  boys,  and 
girls,  — the  home  consumption  of  tobacco  is  large  ;  yet 
over  one  hundred  million  cigars  are  exported  annually 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


173 


from  Manila,  chiefly  to  China,  Japan,  the  East  Indies, 
the  United  Kingdom,  Spain,  and  Australasia.  In  addi- 
tion, some  twenty  million  pounds  of  leaf  tobacco  are 
exported  principally  to  Spain.  Although  it  grows 
almost  everywhere  in  the  archipelago,  it  is  only  the 
tobacco  of  the  hotter  climate  that  possesses  an  aroma ; 
that  raised  in  the  Cagayan  valley  is  considered  the  best 
quality.  As  is  also  true  of  the  hemp  industry,  tobacco 
growing  is  to  a  great  extent  in  the  hands  of  foreigners, 
who  control  large  areas  of  the  most  desirable  land. 

Another  important  staple  is  sugar,  which,  although 
grown  in  almost  every  island,  has   its   home  just  as 


Phimitive  Slgak  Mill 


distinctly  in  the  central  islands,  particularly  in  Negros, 
as  tobacco  does  in  northern  Luzon.  Yet,  due  to  the 
primitive  methods  which  characterize  agriculture  and 


174 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


manufactures  in  the  Philippines  in  general,  the  product 
is  of  an  inferior  quality,  —  perhaps  the  poorest  in  the 
world,  wliereas  the  geographical  conditions  warrant  the 
belief  that  the  Islands  are  capable  of  producing  the  best. 
Yet  poor  in  grade  as  it  is,  the  five  hundred  million  pounds 
produced  is  nearly  all  exported ;  and  in  this  connection 
the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  planters  sell  the  sugar 


Tuba  (Cocoanut  Vine)  Grove,  Majayjay,  Laguna 

Bamboo  poles  from  tree  to  tree  as  bridges 

in  tlie  crude  state  well  illustrates  the  natural  inertia  of 
the  Filipino,  who  is  generally  content  to  accept  the 
smaller  profit  rather  than  assume  the  task  of  refining 
the  product.  As  a  result  there  is  economic  loss  in  the 
transshipment  of  this  heavy  watery  substance  to  China 
for  refinement.  As  to  the  yield  itself,  the  fact  that  in 
the  Hawaiian  islands,  where  the  soil  is  less  productive, 
a  planter  usually  obtains  se\enty-five  tons  of  sugar  to 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


175 


the  acre,  whereas  in  the  Philippines  he  considers  half 
a  ton  a  fair  amonnt,  and  can  make  a  profit  on  snch  a 
basis,  bespeaks  the  character  of  the  culture  in  the  latter 
islands. 

Copra,  another  com- 
mon article  of  commerce 
produced  generally,  is 
the  dried  meat  of  the 
cocoanut,  the  fruit  of  a 
species  of  palm.  From 
this  an  oil  is  extracted, 
which  is  used  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  par- 
ticularly for  lighting 
purposes  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  soaps 
and  perfumes.  The 
cocoanut  plantations, 
which  are  used  almost 
exclusively  for  the  copra 
trade,  require  little  care 
and  yield  a  large  return 
on  the  investment. 

These  four  principal 
products  —  hemp,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  copra  —  consti- 
tute over  ninety  per  cent  of  the  entire  export  trade  of 
the  Islands.  Rice,  the  universal  food  of  all  eastern 
peoples,  which  takes  the  place  of  l^read  among  us,  is 
produced  in  large  quantities,  and  yet  so  insufficiently 


Climbing  for  Tuba 


17G 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


as  to  necessitate  heavy  importations  from  Asia,  making 
tliis  in  fact  the  chief  article  of  import.  Coffee,  chocolate, 
corn,  and  indigo  are  also  important  vegetable  products ; 
and  the  conditions  in  certain  parts  of  the  Islands,  par- 
ticularly the  interior  of  Mindanao,  seem  favorable  for 
the  production  of  rubber.    In  the  case  of  coffee  the 

production  has  fallen  off 
very  much  during  the 
past  fifteen  years  on 
account  of  the  inroads 
of  a  destructive  insect. 
Chocolate  and  not  cof- 
fee, however,  is  the  com- 
mon morning  drink 
among  the  better  class 
of  Filipinos,  and  the  two 
h  u  n  d  r  e  d  thousand 
pounds  of  cocoa  yielded 
is  consumed  at  home  in 
the  manufacture  of 
chocolate.  Corn,  or  maize,  is  the  food  of  the  common 
people  where  the  soil  is  not  suited  to  the  cultivation  of 
rice  ;  and  indigo,  the  last-named  article  of  importance, 
although  formerly  produced  in  large  rpiantities  for  ex- 
port, has  suffered  a  falling  off  in  demand  of  late  owing 
to  the  adulteration  of  this  connnodity  by  the  Chinese. 

The  primary  source  of  wealth  of  the  Islands  lies  in 
the  agricultural  lands,  which  cover  seventy-three  million 
acres,  only  six  millions  of  which,  according  to  present 


tuaxsi'oiitixg  cocoani'ts  thkoruii 

Canal  neau  Post  Office, 

Manila 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


177 


estimates,  are  under  cultivation.  How  crude  and  unsci- 
entific are  the  existing  agricultural  methods  is  but  too 
evident;  yet  equally  clear  is  the  fact  that  modern 
methods  of  husbandry,  such  as  rotation  of  crops,  pro- 
tection from  insects,  proper  fertilization,  and  irrigation, 
would  work  a  wonderful  change  in  the  way  of  increas- 
ing the  produce  per  acre,  and  hence  the  profits  on  the 


Planting  Rice 

investment.  Nor  is  this  mere  speculation,  for  the  intro- 
duction of  such  means  both  of  increasing  the  yield  and 
nourishing  the  soil  to  prevent  exhaustion  is  very  possible; 
and,  indeed,  any  improvement  over  the  present  condi- 
tions in  this  industry,  particularly  a  restricted  immi- 
gration of  Chinese  into  the  Islands  to  teach  the  natives 
farming,  —  a  plan  which  meets  with  the  favor  of  the 
Commission  and  which  should  receive  every  encourage- 
ment in  spite  of  the  general  attitude  assumed  by  us  at 
home  with  reference  to  the  entry  of  these  people  into 


178 


THE  PH1L1PP1^■E   ISLANDS 


the  United  States,  —  would  tend  toward  realizing  greater 
returns  in  this  line  of  work.  With  the  rest  of  the  agri- 
cultural land  (by  far  tlie  greater  part)  then  brought 


Pounding  Kick  to  draw  it  i-kom  the  Husks 

under  a  cultivation  based  upon  these  proposed  present- 
day  principles,  this  great  potential  wealth  would  become 
real  and  the  industry  attain  to  the  position  of  impor- 
tance which  it  deserves. 


Fruits  and  Flowers 

Although  the  necessary  conditions — a  warm  climate, 
an  aljundance  of  tropical  sunshine,  a  plenteous  rain- 
fall, and  a  soil  highly  fertile  —  all  seem  to  be  present, 
there  is  nevertheless  a  conspicuous  absence  of  sweetly 
scented  flowers  and  palatable  fruits.  The  bananas, 
though  they  exist  in  almost  endless  variety  of  form. 


Ikkigating  Machine,  Mokong,  Kizal 


Hand  Irrigation,  Morong,  Rizal 
179 


180 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


color,  and  taste,  are,  with  the  possible  exception  of  one 
species,  the  lakatan,  not  nearly  so  delicious  as  the  ones 
which  we  buy  at  home  at  almost  the  same  price  paid 
for  this  best  grade  in  Manila.  The  pineapple  plant, 
also  common,  is  cultivated  not  for  its  fruit  but  for  the 
fiber  which  is  obtained  from  its  leaves  and  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  very  fine  fabric  known  as  pina  cloth. 

The  fruit  itself  lacks  the 
exquisite  flavor  of  the 
Hawaiian  and  Cuban 
product,  and  here  again, 
as  in  the  case  of  the 
banana,  is  suggested 
the  possibility  of  add- 
ing this  particularly 
desirable  quality  by 
proper  cultivation. 
Oranges  sweeter  than 
almost  any  which  we 
find  at  home,  though 
small,  might  by  similar  care  in  cultivation  be  made  lar- 
ger and  more  luscious,  and,  instead  of  falling  to  waste 
where  they  grow  wild,  become  a  universally  important 
product. 

Of  the  few  distinctive  fruits  of  the  Philippines,  the 
one  perhaps  best  liked  by  foreigners  is  the  mango, 
yellow  in  color,  oval  shaped,  and  some  five  or  six  inches 
long,  with  an  agreeable  flavor  and  a  pleasant  odor.  The 
species  found  in  the  Islands  is  superior  to  that  of  Hawaii, 


Breadfruit  Tree 


CUMMEKCIAL   GEOGKAPHY  181 

Java,  or  the  Straits  Settlements,  in  all  of  which  places 
it  has  a  commercial  value  both  as  a  fresh  fruit  and  as  a 
pickle.  The  mangosteen,  a  j^roduct  of  the  equatorial 
region,  is  found  as  an  exotic  in  some  of  the  southern 
islands.  By  the  Moros  this  is  called  the  "  king's  fruit " 
because  it  is  so  highly  prized  by  their  sultans  ;  and  such 
a  name  is  by  no  means  inappropriate,  for  the  fruit  is 
most  delicately  flavored  and  suggests  a  fruit  lemonade. 
In  appearance  it  very  much  resembles  an  orange  except 
for  the  white  color  of  its  parts.  In  addition  to  these 
fruits  may  be  mentioned  the  chico,  about  the  size  of  a 
peach,  with  a  dark,  dry  skin  and  a  mealy,  edible  j)ortion 
with  a  very  sweet,  pleasant  flavor ;  the  lanzon,  a  kind 
of  plum ;  while  various  others  less  commonly  known 
and  less  generally  used  are  to  be  found  growing  in 
different  regions  of  the  archipelago. 

Timber 

Another  important  asset  of  material  wealth  is  the 
timber  land,  comprising  some  fifty  million  acres,  in  which 
are  to  be  found  between  six  and  seven  hundred  varieties 
of  hard  wood  indigenous  to  the  archipelago  which  are 
suitable  for  the  different  economic  and  artistic  purposes. 
The  great  drawback  to  the  development  of  the  lumber- 
ing industry  is  not  the  lack  of  demand,  but  the  im- 
possibility of  getting  the  timber  out  of  the  forests  on 
account  of  the  want  of  roads,  transportation  facilities, 
and  reliable  labor,  combined  with  the  character  of  the 
distribution  of  these  different  woods,  by  reason  of  which 


182  THE  PHlLlFriNE   ISLANDS 

the  percentage  of  the  amount  of  any  particular  variety 
for  a  given  area  is  generally  small  and  oftentimes  so 
low  as  not  to  warrant  the  exj)enditure  of  the  necessary 
labor.  The  majority  of  these  woods,  furthermore,  have 
a  specific  gravity  greater  than  that  of  water,  and  hence 
cannot  be  shipped  to  market  by  stream  except  l)y  raft 
or  other  craft. 

The  woods  in  most  common  use  are  camagon,  often 
mistaken  for  ebony,  a  dense  jjlack  wood,  highly  valued 
for  cabinet  work ;  elDony,  more  intensely  black  and 
denser  than  camagon,  very  valuable  for  furniture  mak- 
ing and  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder ; 
guijo,  a  durable,  strong,  tough,  and  elastic  species,  used 
in  the  construction  of  vehicles  and  for  flooring  ;  ijnly 
excellent  for  buikling  purposes  and  joiners'  work  and 
also  for  railroad  ties  ;  molave,  called  by  the  natives 
the  ••  queen  of  woods."  proof  against  sea  worms,  white 
ants,  and  the  action  of  the  tropical  climate,  exceedingly 
strong  and  durable,  lasting  well  underground,  and  highly 
valued  for  various  uses  ;  narra,  wrongly  called  mahog- 
any and  resembling  it,  capable  of  a  beautiful  polish  and 
much  used  in  furniture  work  ;  palms,  the  most  common 
class  of  wliich  is  the  paJina  hrava,  used  for  rafters, 
piles,  and  telegraph  poles ;  and  calantds,  the  Philippine 
cedar,  used  for  cigar  boxes  and  other  light  work. 


H 


183 


184  THE  PHILIPPIXE   18L.\NDS 

Mineral  Resources 

Much  attention,  particularly  since  the  American  oc- 
cupation, has  been  centered  upon  what  has  been  hailed 
as  the  enormous  mineral  wealth  of  the  Islands;  and  yet 
in  the  midst  of  these  glowing  accounts  of  the  mining 
possibilities,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  tendency 
inherent  in  human  nature  to  see  visionary  wealth  in 
regions  as  yet  unopened,  and  to  contemplate  the  exist- 
ence of  untold  treasures  in  virgin  fields  with  such  fasci- 
nation as  to  transform  imagination  into  confident  belief. 
Practically  all  that  has  thus  far  appeared  on  this  subject 
is  mere  speculation,  for  as  yet  there  is  no  available 
reliable  information  based  upon  actual  scientific  inves- 
tigation by  Americans,  and  no  evident  proof,  scientific- 
ally speaking,  that  the  Islands  do  or  do  not  contain 
mineral  deposits  in  paying  quantities.  That  the  Span- 
iards, known  to  be  expert  miners,  failed  to  find  exten- 
sive deposits  may  not  be  conclusive  evidence  that  there 
are  none,  and  yet  may  be  a  sufficient  reason  for  a 
feeling  of  skepticism  as  to  the  possibilities. 

Gold,  silver,  and  copper  unquestionably  exist  there,  — 
the  writer  has  seen  them  mined ;  and  marble  has  been 
quarried  to  a  limited  extent.  Pearls  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Sulu  archipelago.  Lignite  has  also  been  found, 
claimed  by  some  to  be  of  excellent  quality,  while 
others  say  it  is  so  mixed  with  sulphur  as  to  be  prac- 
tically useless.  According  to  the  report  of  the  mining 
bureau,   good    coal   has   been   found    in    the   provinces 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  185 

bordering  upon  the  Lake  of  Bay,  and  the  opinion  is 
expressed  by  the  head  of  this  bureau  that  the  coal 
wealth  of  the  archipelago  surpasses  that  of  other 
minerals  that  may  be  discovered.  Such  carboniferous 
deposits  as  there  are,  liowever,  have  not  been  developed 
on  an  extensive  scale,  and  many  of  the  obstacles  which 


ICiOUOT  Gold  Mixes 

prevented  successful  mining  during  the  Spanish  domi- 
nation remain  at  the  present  time,  so  that,  should  rich 
veins  be  discovered,  the  physical  ditticulties  alone  would 
preclude  any  rapid  development  of  them.  True  it  is 
that  various  specimens  have  been  found  showing  an 
encouraging  range  of  deposit ;  yet  these  isolated  sam- 
ples do  not  necessarily  indicate  dynamic  mineral  wealth, 
and  until  more  definite  information  is  to  be  had  a  con- 
servative attitude  is  best. 


186 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


The  Village  Blacksmith 


Mechanical  Industries 

The   country,  notwithstanding  the   aptitude    of    the 
people  and  the  abundance  of  raw  material  for  all  kinds 

of  fabrics,  is  not  a 
manufacturing  one. 
Primitive  instru- 
ments and  methods, 
moreover,  charac- 
terize what  indus- 
tries there  are. 
Hemp  and  pine- 
apple fiber,  cotton, 
and  silk  are  used  in 
weaving,  and  the  cloth  is  named  sincmiay,  piua,  or  jiisi, 
according  as  it  is  made  entirely  from  hemp,  fi"om  pine- 
apple fiber,  or  wholly 
from  silk.  Coarser 
garments,  such  as 
men's  shirts  and 
women's  waists  and 
skirts,  are  usually 
made  of  sinamay ; 
the  gauzy  outer 
waist  worn  by  the 
women  is  also  gen- 
erally of  the  same 
material,  though  the  more  expensive  piiia  is  sometimes 
used;  and  their  more  elegant  garments  are  oijusi. 


Jfk 


h: 


':^£v.i_ 


BlHXIXG    I'uTlEKV    XKAll    I'ASHi.    lllZAL 


Blacksmiths 


Milk  Peddleks,  Manila 


187 


188 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


Bamboo,  palm  leaves,  rattan,  and  a  number  of  other 
vegetable  materials  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
mats,  hats,  and  household  furniture.  Bamboo,  in  par- 
ticular, seems  to  have  an  infinite  number  of  uses,  for  it 
not  only  supplies  everything  necessary  for  building 
houses  and  fences,  and  is  employed  largely  in  making 

wagons  and  harness, 
household  and  farm 
implements,  but  also 
is  used  for  food,  the 
Ijulb  when  boiled 
tasting  much  like 
cabbage.  Most  of 
the  rope  and  cordage 
is  made  from  Manila 
hemp  in  or  near  tlie 
capital ;  and  here 
also  are  the  more 
prominent  cigar  and 
cigarette  factories. 
Throughout  the  Is- 
lands are  numerous 
small  stills  where  alcohol  is  manufactured  from  the 
juice  of  the  nipa  palm,  and  in  Manila  there  is  a  large 
distilling  plant  and  also  a  brewery. 

In  each  of  the  large  towns  are  carried  on  the  com- 
mon trades,  such  as  carpentering,  tinsmithing,  metal 
working,  carriage  repairing,  and  blacksmithing,  in  all 
of   which,    however,   with    the    exception    of    the    last 


An  Elkven-Year-Old  Cuyax  Child 
Weaving 


Water  Carriers 


Vegetable  Garden  at  Jolo 
Photograph  by  G.  E.  C  Rest 


189 


190 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


named,  the  Chinese  are  more  skilled  and  in  greater 
demand.  Metal  molding  in  a  crude  way  is  understood, 
even  among  the  natives  of  Sulu ;  and  silversmithiug  is 
carried  on,  particularly  by  the  Ilocanos,  a  skillful,  intel- 
ligent people  of  northern  Luzon.  Real  ability  has  been 
shown  in  ^vood  carving,  of  which  we  shall  make  men- 
tion later  in  considering  the  artistic  possibilities  of  these 
people.  Shipbuilding,  too,  was  formerly  a  successful 
industry  of  considerable  extent,  but  among  the  natives 
to-day  it  is  limited  to  the  construction  of  small  craft. 

Fishing 

Owing  to  the  great  water  area,  fresh  and  salt,  nearly 
every  Filipino  is  a  fisherman,  and  fish  forms  one  of  the 
principal  articles  of  food  for  the  people  in  general ;  but 

as  distinct  industries, 
marine  and  fresh-water 
fishino:  are  not  carried 
on  extensively.  The 
local  markets  are  sup- 
plied by  those  who  make 
this  a  regular  occupa- 
tion, and  in  the  large 
seaport  towns  a  brisk 
business    is    done    by 

I'liiMiTivK  Way  ok  Fishin(;  ,1  /•   1  i,    x      j. 

these  hshermen  ;  but  at 
most  this  branch  is  only  of  local  importance,  and  no  such 
deep-sea  fishing  as  has  for  centuries  formed  the  occupa- 
tion of  multitudes  of  Chinese  near  by  is  carried  on. 


Fishing 


]\Iaking  Fish  Nets,  Cavite 
Ifll 


192  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Animal  Life 

The  water  buffalo,  and  not  the  horse  or  the  ox,  is 
the  native  beast  of  burden.  Strong  but  slow  and  delib- 
erate of  movement,  and  easily  affected  by  overwork 
or  disease,  particularly  rinderpest,  which  has  recently 
wrought  such  destruction,  it  is  hardly  an  ideal  one ; 
yet  given  its  necessary  daily  wallow  in  some  muddy 
creek,  it  serves  the  Filipino  well  at  the  di-ay  and  the 
plow.  Buffalo  milk  is  drunk  and  the  flesh  of  the  ani- 
mal is  eaten  by  the  natives,  but  this  latter  is  tough 
and  stringy  and  to  Americans  unpalatable.  Running 
bulls,  such  as  are  found  in  India,  and  undersized  horses 
are  also  employed  by  the  natives,  but  less  generally, 
and  are  hardly  typical. 

Deer  and  monkeys  are  found  here,  and  are  used  for 
food.  Hogs  of  a  black  color  are  to  be  seen  in  the  streets 
of  every  village,  roaming  at  will  and  performing  the 
useful  service  of  scavengers,  —  perhaps  the  only  reason 
for  tolerating  them.  In  spite  of  their  public  function, 
however,  little  hesitation  is  shown  in  killing,  roasting, 
and  eating  them  immediately  on  any  festival  occasion. 

Among  the  birds  the  flesh  and  eggs  of  which  are 
eaten  are  cocks  and  hens,  several  species  of  jungle 
fowl,  ducks,  pigeons,  and  snipe. 

Oysters,  clams,  shrimp,  crabs,  and  lobsters  abound 
in  the  shallow  waters.  An  enormous  giant  mollusk 
is  found  with  shells  sometimes  six  feet  in  length  and 
hundreds   of   pounds   in   weight,   the   valves   of    which 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


193 


are  often  used  for  baptismal  fonts  and  at  times  for 
making  lime;  while  the  translucent  valves  of  certain 
smaller  mollusks  are  ground  into  thin  plates  and  used 
extensively  in  place  of  window  glass.  Coral  beds,  too, 
exist  in  the  southern  islands,  displaying  beautiful  forms 
and  colors  in  the  depths  below  and  evidencing  the 
activity  of  the 
polypi. 

Ants  are  pres- 
ent in  countless 
numbers  and  va- 
rieties, of  which 
the  m  o  s  t  de- 
structive is  the 
white  ant,  or 
ternite,  which 
inflicts  great 
damage  on 
wooden  structures.  Bees  also  inhalnt  the  Islands,  par- 
ticularly the  southern  ones ;  and  honey  forms  an  article 
of  food,  and  wax  one  of  commerce.  Mosquitoes  spread- 
ing malarial  disease  and  locusts  destroying  the  crops 
fairly  swarm  the  land.  Myriads  of  flies  and  water 
bugs,  large  and  small,  also  exist ;  and  of  the  reptile, 
rodent,  and  arachnid  families  are  mnnerous  represent- 
atives including  lizards,  scorpions,  centipedes,  snakes 
to  a  limited  extent,  spiders  of  all  sizes,  but  rarely 
poisonous,  and  rats,  which  have  caused  damage  chiefly 
in  Manila  l)y  spreading  plague  infection. 


"m^^^m 

p 

^r^T% 

- .  *     . . 

■-        ;^gj| 

Bull  Cart  used  in  1'kovincf.s 


194 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Before  conclucliusi:  this  consideration  of  the  Islands 
from  the  standpoint  of  commercial  geography,  let  ns 
direct  our  attention  to  some  of  the  features  of  the 
more  important  members  of  the  group. 

Interest  naturally  centers  on  Luzon,  on  which  Manila 
is  situated.  Next  to  the  largest  island  in  the  grouj), 
some  four  hundred  miles  in  length  and  two  hundred 
in  width,  it  was  the  first  to  be  occupied  by  American 
troops,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  earliest  and  most  impor- 
tant military  operations.  It  is  divided  into  twenty-two 
provinces,  not  including  the  municipality  of  Manila,  all 
under  civil  government.  On  account  of  the  location  of 
the  capital  in  Luzon,  the  island  has  Ijeen  influenced  more 
than  any  of  the  others  by  outside  civilizing  forces,  and 


Taking  Rice  to  Market 


for  the  same  reason  has  the  largest  and  most  diversified 
trade  and  most  of  tlie  more  extensive  industrial  plants. 
Outside  of  Manila,  iiowever,  tobacco  and  hemp  growing 
arc  the   principal  industries.    It  is   related   tliat  wlien 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


195 


Magellan's  party  first  landed  on  this  island  they  saw  a 
woman  pounding  rice  in  a  mortar  made  fi'om  a  tree 
trunk,  just  such  as  is  used  to-day,  and  they  made  signs 


Native  Carriage,  Manila 

to  her  to  inquire  what  she  was  doing.  In  reply  she 
lifted  the  large  wooden  pestle  and  called  out  "Looson," 
which  is  the  name  given  by  the  natives  to  the  whole 
instrument;  and  from  this  circumstance  the  Spaniards 
named  the  island  Luzon. 

Mindoro  is  the  least  explored  island  of  all ;  it  is 
very  mountainous,  thickly  wooded,  and  unpenetrated 
by  roads.  Various  traditions  envelop  this  strange  place 
in  a  haze  of  fascinating  mystery :  wild  tribes  are  said 
to  be  there ;  white  people  having  all  the  appearance 
of  Anglo-Saxons,  and  supposed  to  be  descendants  of 
those  who  were  sent  out  early  to  form  an  English 
penal  settlement,  have,  according  to  the  testimony  of 


196 


THE  PHILIPPIXE   ISLANDS 


native  priests  and  military  officers,  been  seen  in  the 
interior ;  and  great  mineral  wealth  was  reported  to  the 
Spaniards  as  lying  in  the  mountains  inland,  whence 
the  name,  "mine  of  gold."  Moro  pirates  formerly  rav- 
aged the  coasts,  and  later  desperate  characters  from 
Luzon  and  near-by  islands  made  this  their  resort. 

Along  the  shores  there  are  small  towns  having  rattan 
splitting  as  the  chief   industr}^;  and  honey,  wax,  and 


IIa.M.MUC  K^     (i()lN(i     TO    A.Nlirdl.o.     liIZAL 

tortoise  shell  are  obtained  from  the  neigliboring  islands, 
with  Calapan  as  the  trade  center. 

Masbate,  named  from  a  certain  species  of  palm  grow- 
ing on  the  island,  is  traversed  and  broken  by  a  semi- 
circular mountain  chain,  and  until  the  appearance  of 
the  rinderpest  was  the  center  of  a  thriving  cattle- 
raising  industry.  Timber  cutting  is  now  the  chief 
source  of  wealth.  The  climate  here  is  conspicuously 
liealthful,  the  people  industrious,  and  the  natural 
beauty  unsurpassed. 

Samar,  third  in  size  in  the  group,  is  almost  a  con- 
tinuation of  southern  Luzon.    Nearlv  all  tlie  towns  are 


C0:\OrERClAL   GEOGRAPHY 


197 


on  the  coast  or  along  the  main  streams  navigable  for 
native  craft.  The  interior  is  rough  and  wild,  uninviting, 
and  sparsely  settled  by  mountain  peoples.  Hemp  is  the 
principal  product. 

Leyte,  separated  from  Samar  by  a  narrow  strait,  is 
very  similar  to  the  latter  in  physical  character  and 
resources,  and  is  likewise  devoted  chiefly  to  hemp  pro- 
ducing,   though  much   sulphur,  supplying  the  powder 


Native  Traxspoktathix 

mills  in  Manila  under  the  Spanish  rule,  was  obtained 
here.  In  spite  of  the  general  mountainous  character  it 
is  one  of  the  best  cultivated  islands  in  the  archipelago. 
Here  it  was  that  Villalobos  landed  in  1543  and  named 
the  place  Filipina,  which  name  was  later  extended  to 
the  entire  group. 

Panay  is  mainly  interesting  because  on  it  is  situated 
Iloilo,  next  to  Manila  the  most  important  commercial 
center  in  the  Islands.    It  is  one  of  the  more  prosperous 


108 


THE  PIIILIPPIXE  ISLANDS 


of  the  group,  with  fertile  soil,  good  means  of  communi- 
cation Avith  the  interior  towns,  and  contented  people. 
Hemp  and  sugar  in  general  and  various  textiles  from 
silk,  pineapple,  and  hemp  filjer,  such  asy2<6'/.^.»//7rt,  and  sina- 
niay  manufactured  in  and  near  Iloilo,  are  the  products. 
Negros,  almost  separated  into  two  ditt'erent  islands 
by  its  dividing  chain  of  mountains,  is  the  home  of  the 

sugar  industry.  The 
soil  is  particularly- 
fertile,  the  people  are 
in  comfortable  cir- 
cumstances, and  al- 
most no  disturbances 
have  been  known. 
1 1  ere  may  be  seen  the 
genuine  haciendas  or 
plantations,  and  their 
owners,  the  prop- 
ertied class. 

Cebu  became  early  known  to  foreigners  as  a  trading 
center,  and  the  city  itself,  next  in  importance  to  Manila 
and  Iloilo,  has  from  the  earliest  times  enjoyed  an  inde- 
pendent ti'ade  with  Asiatic  and  European  ports ;  and 
this  intercourse  has  had  the  effect  of  elevatins;  the 
island,  particularly  that  portion  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
capital,  to  a  higher  stage  of  civilization  than  that  of  its 
neighbors.  The  mountainous  interior,  however,  is  not 
yet  properly  opened  up  by  the  necessary  roads,  making 
comnnmication  from  coast  to  coast  possible. 


I  i;avelin(;   in  Bexguet 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGKAPHY  199 

Bohol  is  one  of  the  most  uninteresting  islands  of  all. 
Its  soil  is  comparatively  l^arren,  the  timber  resources 
are  limited,  and  many  of  the  towns  luifortunatel}-  were 
razed  during  the  w^ar.  The  interior  is  rocky  and  diffi- 
cult of  access,  and  the  people  have  been  turbulent. 

Palawan,  long  and  narrow,  lying  to  the  far  south- 
west, is  the  most  inaccessible  of  the  larger  islands. 
Spanish  authority  was  recognized  only  along  the  coast, 
but  never  affected  the  savage  tribes  of  the  interior; 
and  as  yet  American  dominion  has  penetrated  little 
farther.  The  people  are  partly  Mohammedan,  mostly 
heathen,  and  are  far  removed  from  the  state  of  civiliza- 
tion.   Honey  and  wax  are  here  produced  hi  quantities. 

Mindanao,  the  name  signifying  "  the  peoples  of  the 
lake,"  occupies  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  archipel- 
ago, and  is  the  largest  in  the  group.  The  climate  is  more 
equable  and  healthful  than  that  of  Luzon  and,  unlike 
the  latter,  it  is  not  exposed  to  the  typhoons.  Mountain 
chains  attaining  great  height  traverse  the  island,  and 
forests  largely  unexplored  and  full  of  animal  life 
cover  a  great  portion  of  it.  The  lake  region  of  the 
interior,  practically  none  of  which  was  under  Spanish 
control,  is  now  accessible  from  the  northern  coast  by 
military  roads,  and  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants  are  for 
the  first  time  making  the  acquaintance  of  an  outside 
power. 

All  the  common  products  of  the  archipelago  are 
raised  here,  and  in  addition  certain  of  the  spices  in- 
digenous to  the  East  Indies. 


200  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

The  Sulu  arcliiiDelago,  lying  to  the  southeast  of  Min- 
danao, though  ceded  with  the  Phihppines,  forms  a  dis- 
tinct group  of  islands,  smaller  in  size  than  the  ones 
we  have  been  considering.  The  inhabitants  are  Mo- 
hammedans, ruled  by  dattos,  wdth  the  sultan  at  their 
head,  and  have  tastes,  habits,  and  interests  in  common 
rather  with  the  Boruese  and  East  Indians  than  with 
the  Filipinos. 

Finally,  it  would  be  impossible  to  leave  the  present 
subject  without  just  a  word  regarding  the  commercial 
position  of  the  Islands  with  reference  to  the  great 
oriental  world,  and  the  significance  in  this  connection 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal,  soon  to  wield  an  influence  in  the 
field  of  international  trade.  More  than  half  the  peoples 
of  the  earth  live  in  the  countries  which  are  within  easy 
reach  from  the  Philippines :  China,  with  its  four  hun- 
dred millions  or  more  of  people;  the  East  Indies,  with 
over  three  hundred  and  forty  millions ;  Japan,  forty-two 
millions;  Australasia,  five  millions;  Siam,  nine  millions; 
and  the  Straits  Settlements,  one  million  ;  making  a  total 
poj^ulation  ten  times  that  of  the  United  States.  That 
our  possessions  there  will  become  a  base  for  commercial 
operations  in  the  Far  East  is  only  a  conjecture  ;  yet  there 
are  those  who  see  in  Manila  a  second  Hongkong, — a 
great  mart  for  the  supply  of  the  earth's  products  to  the 
millions  of  this  vast  Orient.  With  the  capacity  of  the 
home  markets  long  since  reached,  where  competition 
has  become  almost  stifling,  trade  has  already  sought 
other  fields ;  and  among  them  this  oriental  one,  with 


COMMEKCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  201 

a  demand  for  goods  that  seems  unlimited,  is  the  fairest. 
It  is  but  beginning  to  open  up,  and  as  its  extent  and 
the  various  wants  of  these  multitudes  of  human  beings 
are  being  revealed,  the  assurance  comes  that  for  ages 
hence  here  will  Ije  the  great  center  for  commercial 
activity,  the  scene  of  future  trade  conflicts,  the  objec- 
tive point  in  the  nations'  race  for  wealth.  And  here 
are  the  Philippines,  an  entrance,  as  it  were,  to  this 
tempting  field,  brouglit  nearer  to  the  home  country  by 
the  intercontinental  canal,  which  thus  will  lend  active 
aid  in  gaining  control  of  the  held  itself.  The  possibili- 
ties are  great ;  time  will  determine  the  results. 


202 


CITY  OF  3IANILA 


EXPLANATION 

City  Boimdaiy 

BounUarlcs  of  City  Disiricta 


^luclcltoiiseB       [o] 

Kaliniad    

BuildluKK     <2a    aud 
Cemetery     tSJ  Cem. 
Cburcbes      * 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MANILA 

Manila,  formerly  jMaynila,  or  Bush  Town,  as  the  name 
signifies,  the  Nuremberg  of  the  Orient,  with  Ijut  few 
equals  anywliere  for  quaintness,  owes  its  foundation  to 
Legaspi,  who  on  his  northern  expedition  in  1571  took 


:^f. 


PlEUTA    KkAL,    AVaLLS    OF    ]\IaNILA 

the  ancient  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pasig  and,  divid- 
ing the  land  among  his  Spanish  followers,  set  in  opera- 
tion plans  for  a  well-laid-out  city.  Streets  were  cut  and 
houses  constructed  in  squares,  and  a  park  was  reserved 

203 


204 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


in  tlie  midst  of  these,  flanked  by  the  cathedral  church 
on  one  side  and  municipal  buildings  on  the  other.  Later 
by  some  twenty  years  walls  were  built  round  the  city 
with  drawbridge  entrances ;  and  in  1G54  the  cathedral, 
now  venerable,  was  begun. 

Philip  II  had  made  the  city  the  capital  of  the  archi- 
pelago, and  its  splendor  soon  won  for  it  the  name  of 

Pearl  of  the  Orient. 
Early  writers  de- 
scribe it  as  beauti- 
fully laid  out  and 
built,  indeed  the 
first  city  of  the 
East.  It  is  cause 
for  regret  that  it 
did  not  continue  up 
to  the  present  time 
in  this  ancient 
form  ;  as  we  know, 
the  earthquake  of 
1645  wrouo;ht  such 
destruction  as  to 
discourage  any  ef- 
forts toward  reconstructing  on  the  same  scale  as  for- 
merly, and  the  city  which  Americans  found  on  their 
arrival  six  j'ears  ago  was  the  result. 

Excellent  judgment  was  shown  by  the  early  settlers 
in  selecting  the  site  of  the  capital,  for  the  position  is 
remarkably  good  commercially  and  strategically,  with 


Sentry  Box  inside  Walls 


MANILA 


205 


the  sea  on  one  side,  inclosed  by  a  harbor  some  thirty 
miles  across,  protected  by  a  fortified  promontory  at  the 
outlet,  the  river  flowing  through  the  center  of  the 
city,  furnishing  with  its  innumerable  tributaries  every 
facility  for  water  transportation.  Direct  communication 
is  also  thus  afforded  to  Laguna  bay  and  the  numerous 
towns  along  the  shores  in  this  fertile  region  of  central 


Street  in  Walled  City 

Luzon;  and  other  streams  emptying  into  ]\lanila  bay, 
available  for  lighter  craft,  make  it  easily  possible  to 
bring  the  product  of  the  surrounding  country  into  the 
capital. 

The  location  was  less  fortunate,  however,  from  the 
standpoint  of  climate,  for,  just  at  sea  level,  the  city  was 
constantly  subjected  to  the  intense  heat  of  a  tropical  sun, 
which,  with  so  much  water  near  by,  caused  a  high  degree 
of  humidity  and  thus  furnished  conditions  favorable  for 


206 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Lighthouse  at  Entuaxce  of  Pask;  Kinku  on  Manila  Bay 

the  contraction  of  fevers  and  in  general  encouraged 
the  spread  of  diseases  peculiar  to  such  countries. 

Manila  to-day,  with  its  cosmopolitan  population  num- 
bering some  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand, 
made  up  of  Filipinos,  Chinese,  Americans,  Spanish,  Ger- 
mans, British,  Japanese,  French,  Portuguese,  Indians, 


C'liuucii  IJl'1li)1N(;s,  Manila 


MANILA 


207 


and  nicany  other  peoples  in  small  numbers,  is  a  crowded 
oriental  city,  unprepossessing,  conspicuously  barren  of 
the  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation  so  noticeable  elsewhere, 
even  just  outside  the  city,  at  first  most  interesting  for 
its  novelty  and  afterwards  equally  tiresome  because  of 
its  monotony.  Low-lying  and  bounded  by  a  range  of 
mountains  in  the  back- 
ground which  makes  it 
appear  even  smaller,  it 
fails  to  impress  the  new- 
comer, and  not  until  he 
has  left  the  steamer  and 
traveled  up  the  Pasig 
to  the  landing  point  is 
he  able  to  make  out  the 
real  city  and  its  activ- 
ities. And  then  he  be- 
gins to  form  impressions 
and  simultaneously  to 
wipe  off  a  rapidly 
accumulating  flow  of  perspiration,  which  seems  to  have 
an  abundant  source  and  increases  in  volume  with  every 
step  he  takes  under  the  burning  sun  in  his  search  for 
some  means  of  conveyance  from  the  water  front  to  the 
hotel.  Filipinos  and  Chinese  in  the  employment  of  our 
government  are  seen  in  numbers  round  the  custom- 
house and  other  buildings  along  the  river;  others  again, 
mainly  Chinese,  hurry  along  in  the  broiling  sun  carrying 
burdens  suspended  from  a  piece  of  bamboo  placed  across 


"Window  in  Walled  City 


208 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


the  shoulder ;  native  women  with  infants  galore  squat 
round  selling  cigarettes,  fried  grasshojDpers,  and  cakes, 
or  await  their  laboring  husbands,  who  are  ever  ready  to 
postpone  work  awhile  for  a  smoke  talk ;  and  occasion- 
ally natiA'e  vehicle  drivers  are  to  be  seen,  indifferent  to 

the  new  arrival's  need 
of  some  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  perhaps 
asleep  in  their  box,  for 
it  is  still  hot.  Finally 
he  reaches  the  hotel,  or 
if  not  this,  then  unfor- 
tunately some  one  of 
the  numerous  Spanish- 
Filipino  institutions  in 
the  city  which  go  by  the 
same  name,  but  are  sad- 
looking  competitors  for 
such  a  designation,  as 
the  general  interior  ap- 
pearance, absence  of  the 
little  things  that  are  no 
longer  considered  luxuries  here  at  home,  and  the  species 
and  quality  of  the  food  served  soon  testify. 

After  a  stopping  place  has  been  found  and,  if  imme- 
diately possil)le,  a  change  of  linen  and  abandonment 
of  woolen  clothes  accomplished,  the  impression  making 
may  continue.  The  sun  has  lowered  in  its  course  and, 
no  longer  scorching,  is  settling  over  Mariveles  across 


Washing  Clotiiks  near  Bridge 
OF  Spain 


209 


210 


THE  PlllLirriNE   ISLANDS 


the  bcay  and  preparing  one  of  the  most  beautiful  siglits 
imaginable  as  it  sinks  behind  this  rugged  mountain, 
casting  long  beams  across  the  broad  harbor  and  bathing 
clouds  and  ships  and  church  spires  in  a  golden  brilliancy. 
The  air  has  become  pleasantly  cool,  and  crowds  riding, 
driving,  and  promenading  fill  the  Luneta,  where  a  con- 
cert is  going  on.     The  white  costumes  of  natives  and 


Luneta 

foreigners,  so  pleasing  in  effect,  the  vivacity  of  this  cos- 
mopolitan set,  the  sweetness  of  the  music,  the  cooling 
air,  the  beauty  of  this  tropical  sunset,  —  all  together 
comljine  to  satisfy  again  the  mind  that  w^as  Ijecoming 
discontented. 

By  this  time  the  general  character  of  the  city  and 
its  contents  has  been  perceived,  — tlie  division  into  sepa- 
rate districts  or  wards;  the  queer  old  section  within  the 
walls  surrounded  by  a  disease-generating  moat  and  itself 


211 


212  THE  riiiLirnxE  islands 

known  as  Manila  ;  the  more  recent  bnsiness  portions 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Pasig,  where  foreigners 
have  their  establishments ;  Chinatown,  a  typical  Chi- 
nese neighborhood;  the  narrow,  crowded  streets  and 
the  low,  strangely  built  houses,  with  stables  below  and 
a  second  story  projecting  over  a  bit  of  sidewalk  ;  the 
number  of  creeks  or  csteros  forming  a  network  of 
canals  through  the  city  ;  the  public  markets  ;  the  differ- 
ent types  of  people  with  such  variegated  costumes ;  the 
little  horses  and  the  deliberate  water  buffaloes  ;  and,  per- 
vading all,  the  constant  chatter  of  the  natives  in  their 
guttiu\al  Tagalog  dialect,  with  an  added  bit  of  English 
here,  German  there,  or  Spanish  in  another  place. 

Americans  who  live  in  cities  which  have  water  sup- 
plies, systems  of  sewerage,  gas  and  electricity,  street 
railways,  well-paved  streets,  fire  and  police  departments, 
and  public  lil^raries  can  hardly  imagine  the  elementary 
condition  of  the  cities  of  the  Philippines.  Manila  alone 
has  a  water  supply,  an  electric-light  plant,  a  street  rail- 
way, and  a  telephone  system ;  and  these  are  primitive 
and  incomplete.  The  capital  was  the  first  to  reap  the 
benefits  of  the  new  government,  and  consequently  had 
some  of  its  most  urgent  needs  attended  to  almost  im- 
mediately. Foremost  among  the  improvements  were  a 
well-organized  department  of  sanitation,  which  has  done 
an  immense  amount  of  good ;  a  police  department ; 
a  municipal  ice  plant,  —  a  veritable  blessing;  and  a 
hospital.  Yet  much  remains  that  has  not  yet  been 
accomplished;  the  cleansing  j^rocess  must  be  continued 


Calle  Gkal.  Solana,  Manila 


213 


214  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

in  order  to  reduce  to  a  miiiinium  the  chances  of  such 
serious  outbreaks  of  cholera,  bubonic  plague,  and  small- 
pox as  have  occurred  in  the  past;  means  of  transpor- 
tation must  be  extended,  though  this  need  does  not 
demand  immediate  attention  now  that  an  electric-car 
line  has  been  put  into  operation,  —  a  great  improve- 
ment over  conditions  a  short  time  ago,  when  it  was 
practically  impossible  to  secure  a  vehicle  when  one  was 
most  needed ;  and,  in  general,  streets  remain  to  be 
improved  and  various  portions  of  the  city  to  be  beau- 
tified Ijy  parks  and  tropical  vegetation,  which  needs 
little  encouragement  and  which  improves  these  island 
cities  so  wonderfully,  as  any  one  who  has  visited  beau- 
tiful Honolulu  can  testify. 

The  increasing  number  of  Americans  is  already  so 
large  and  their  energy  and  enterprise  so  dominant  that 
there  is  no  large  city  in  the  East  which  has  undergone 
so  complete  a  change.  Three  years  ago  the  lack  of 
luxuriant  tropical  vegetation ;  the  dirty,  narrow,  poorly 
paved  streets;  the  inferior  artificial  light ;  the  miserably 
equipped  car  line,  patronized  only  by  natives  of  the 
poorer  classes ;  the  groups  of  nipa  shacks,  more  primitive 
as  a  dwelling  than  the  worst  American  shanty;  the 
narrow  Escolta,  the  main  business  street;  the  sultry 
climate  ;  the  mixed  currency ;  the  inability  to  speak  the 
language ;  the  difficulty  in  finding  goods,  both  clothing 
and  food,  which  you  especially  wanted;  the  long  dis- 
tances ;  the  high  hotel  expenses ;  the  scarcity  of  public 
conveyances, — all  coml^ned  to  make  the  first  impressions 


215 


210  THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

of  the  newcomer  hardly  of  the  most  pleasant  sort. 
But  conditions  have  changed  much  even  within  this 
short  space  of  time,  and  the  city  is  becoming  more  and 
more  American  or,  in  other  words,  up  to  date. 

Attractions  are  not  by  any  means  entirely  lacking  in 
this  city  of  novelty,  as  we  have  already  seen;  there  is 
the  charm  of  a  tropical  climate,  which  may  be  called  its 
open-airness, —  one  is  somehow  a  little  nearer  to  nature. 


Common  ll<_iu?i:  J.izai:d 

The  evenings  at  sunset,  when  the  day's  enjoyment 
begins,  are  almost  alwa3's  cool,  and  the  nights  comfort- 
able ;  the  freedom  of  the  life  is  delightful.  A  cold 
shower  l^ath  in  the  morning  after  a  solid  night  of  sleep, 
and  the  donning  of  an  immaculate  white  costume  start 
the  day  well  ;  a  siesta  during  the  hot  early  afternoon 
adds  to  the  comfort.  Cockroaches  may  devour  your 
books  and  clothes,  ants  your  furniture,  lizards  and 
spiders  keep  you  company  at  night,  mice  and  rats  in 
the  roof  hold  regular  sessions,  and  mosquitoes  get 
under  your  netting,  and  yet  you  almost  forget  it  all  in 


MANILA 


217 


thinking  of  the  pleasures  and  gazing  at  the  bkie  sky 
overhead,  the  rich  sunsets  across  the  placid  waters  of 
the  bay  lighting  up  the  mountains  on  every  side,  and 
the  snowy,  white-robed  throngs  taking  their  drives  and 
walks  before  a  late  dinner. 

Tiu-ning  to   matters  more  practical,  to  one   taking 
up  residence  in  Manila  the  house  question  is  the  most 


House  of  an  American  Resident  in  Manila 

difficult  to  solve;  even  a  fairly  good  house  is  hard  to 
find.  Rents  are  high,  varying  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  a  month;  sanitary  arrangements  are 
poor,  and  nearly  every  American  must  spend  some  fifty 
or  a  hundred  dollars  in  putting  the  house  into  proper 
condition.  If  anything  better  than  kerosene  lamj)s  is 
desired,  electric  lights  or  an  acetylene-gas  plant  must 


218 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


be  put  in  by  the  tenant.  Servants,  again,  are  a  source 
of  concern,  for  while  the  Filipinos  are  sometimes  good, 
they  are  often  incompetent  and  unreliable.  A  larger 
nundjer  is  needed  than  at  home,  and  then  the  total 
cost  of  domestic  service  is  much  higher.  Wages  in  the 
capital  for  native  boys  var}-  from  four  to  ten  dollars  a 


Slsi'ension    BiuDGE  ovEU  Pasig   RiVKi: 

month,  and  two  or  three  of  these  are  required.  Filipino 
cooks  are  unsatisfactory,  and  a  Cliinaman,  who  demands 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  dollars,  becomes  a  necessity. 
Laundry  is  sent  out,  and  even  though  an  exceptionally 
good  bargain  has  been  struck,  tliis  becomes  a  material 
item  of  household  expense.  In  general,  there  is  no 
system  of  registering  servants,  and  with  the  constant 
change  taking  place  in  the  American  j)opulation,  the 
authors  of  the  letters  of  reference  cannot  well  be  con- 
sulted ;  hence  there  is  no  means  of  telling  whether  or 
not  the  bearer  of  the  recommendation  is  the  original 
person  for  whom  it  was  intended.  After  the  servants 
are  finally  hired  petty  thefts  and  unannounced  depar- 
tures are  to  be  expected. 

On  account  of  the  de[)lorable  lack  of  any  proper  and 
sufficient   means   of   daily  transportation   until   within 


MANILA 


219 


the  last  few  months,  when  a  modern  electric  railway 
connecting  the  business  and  office  districts  with  a  part 
of  the  residence  portion  was  started,  it  has  jjeen  prac- 
tically necessary  for  every  family  to  own  at  least  one 
horse  and  some  kind  of  a  carriage.  For  their  care 
a  hostler-coachman  is  needed,  who,  knowing  nothing 
about  the  proper  care  of  horses  and  little  more  aljout 
driving,  is  paid  from  eight  to  twelve  dollars  a  month. 
Many  a  person,  annoyed  and  worried  because  of  the  vex- 
atious delays  in  getting  a  public  conveyance,  has  thought 
the  transportation  cjuestion  settled  by  providing  him- 
self with  a  rig.  But  he  is  mistaken;  his  trouljles  have 
only  begun.  The  ponies  are  not  hardy,  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  sickness  among  them,  and  every  season  glan- 
ders, surra,  and  other  diseases  carry  them  off  l^y  the 


C'ascoks  used  in  unloading  Vksski-s  in  Manila  IIakijuk 

hundreds.  They  are  expensive  to  keep,  too ;  in  fact,  it 
costs  as  much  to  feed  one  of  these  ponies  as  it  does  to 
board  an  American  horse  at  a  private  livery  stable  in 
New  York  City.  Australian  fodder,  or  American,  when 
it  can  Ije  hud,  is  better  than  the  native  food,  which 


220 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


consists  of  grass, — a  valiial)le  commodity  in  the  Pliili]> 
j^ines, — milmsked  and  powdered  rice,  and  molasses. 
Harnesses  are  cliea}),  l)ut  lack  durability;  the  climate 
rots  the  leather  and  they  are  always  getting  out  of 
order.  Carriages,  too,  are  cheap  in  the  first  instance, 
l)ut  dear  in  the  end,  for  they  are  poorly  constructed 
and  ahvays  in  need  of  repair.  Every  piece  of  wood  in 
them  is  wrenched  one  way  in  the  dry  season  and  the 

other  way  in  the 
wet  season ;  indeed, 
one  season  of  wet 
weather,  aided  by 
the  rough  roads,  will 
age  a  carriage  ten 
years  according  to 
home  standards. 

Meats  and  gro- 
ceries are  high  and 
of  inferior  quality; 
at  times,  indeed, 
it  is  impossible  to  procure  certain  articles,  owing  to 
irregular  shipments  and  other  causes ;  while  the  supply 
of  meat,  wliieh  comes  from  Australia  in  cold  storage, 
is  very  much  interruiDted  during  the  typhoon  season. 
The  housekeeper  is,  in  fact,  kept  busy  from  morning 
to  night  in  looking  after  her  servants,  doing  errands,  and 
making  purchases. 

Manila,  socially,  is  very  gay.    There  are  club  and  offi- 
cial receptions,  dinners,  theater  parties,  launch  parties, 


P^SCOLTA   BlUDGE    AM)   CaNAL,   ]\IaNILA 


MAXILA 


221 


either  on  the  bay  or  up  the  Pasig  river,  dances,  concerts, 
and  horse  races.  Among  the  chibs  are  the  Army  and 
Navy,  the  University,  the  American,  and  the  Enghsh, 
and  there  are  various  native,  Spanish,  and  American 
theaters.    Athletic    sports,   which   the   British   provide 


A  Manila  Canal 


for  themselves  wherever  they  go,  are,  however,  not 
popular  with  the  Americans  in  the  Islands,  —  a  fact 
that  is  to  be  regretted,  for  regular  exercise  of  a  light 
character  is  one  of  the  requisites  of  good  health  in 
the  tropics. 

There  are  some  eight  or  ten  American  and  Spanish 
newspapers,  but  difficulty  is  met  with  in  getting  together 


222  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

sufficient  news  to  fill  tlieir  columns.  Papers  and  maga- 
zines from  the  States  are  a  month  old  when  they  reach 
Manila,  and  yet  in  spite  of  this  fact  their  arrival  is 
always  an  important  event. 

Americans  and  Filipinos  meet  at  receptions  and  ex- 
change calls,  but  there  is  no  intimate  social  relation 
between  them ;  vmavailing  efforts  have  been  made  to 
bring  them  nearer  together.  Many  of  the  richer  Fili- 
pinos live  in  handsome  villas  and  entertain  lavishly. 
One  is  alwaj's  perfectly  welcome  at  whatever  house  he 
enters  and  is  urgently  invited  to  partake  of  everything 
the  house  affords  ;  and  this  is  not  only  true  at  times  of 
marriage  and  on  feast  days,  but  in  fact  on  every  occa- 
sion that  presents  itself.  The  tables  are  loaded  with 
cold  meats,  all  kinds  of  pastry,  preserves,  confectionery, 
and  everything  to  drink,  while  entertainment  is  fur- 
nished by  the  harp  or  piano,  with  dancing.  In  both 
Manila  and  the  provinces  the  writer  has  found  these 
people  to  be  the  most  hospitable  he  has  ever  met ; 
they  are  extremely  free,  open-hearted,  and  cordial,  and 
it  seems  as  if  they  cannot  do  enough  for  their  guests. 

Lazy,  sleepy,  and  mediceval  are  some  of  the  epithets 
applied  to  Manila  by  those  who  described  the  place  pre- 
vious to  the  coming  of  the  Americans,  and  the  monotony 
of  the  business  and  social  life  was  constantly  jDointed 
out.  Now,  however,  strenuous,  wide-awake,  and  modern 
are  more  applicable  terms  for  describing  it.  As  one 
clever  American  put  it,  Manila  to-day  is  the  oldest  new 
town  and  the  newest  old  town  in  tlie  Orient. 


MANILA 


223 


The  influx  of  Americans  has  raised  the  cost  of  every- 
thing ;  what  was  thought  to  be  a  momentary  sudden 
excess  of  demand  over  supply  in  the  matter  of  food 
products,  houses,  and  servants  has  continued  up  to  the 
present  time;  and  the  high  standard  of  American  hving, 
even  of  those  of  moderate  means,  has  astonished  Euro- 
peans themselves.    The  American  lavishness,  in  fact, 


Paco  Cemetery 


has  already  had  the  effect  of  raising  prices  throughout 
the  eastern  world,  and  American  extravagance  has 
become  a  byword. 

The  capital  and  its  vicinity  are  not  without  their 
points  of  interest,  chief  among  which  is  Paco  ceme- 
tery,—  a  place  of  most  singular  construction,  in  the 
form  of  a  double  circle.  Betw^een  the  outer  and  the 
inner  circles  there  is  a  space  left  for  the  poor,  who  in 


224  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLAXDS 

Spanish  times  were  interred  without  coffins.  In  the 
thick,  sohd  walls  there  are  three  parallel  rows  of  hori- 
zontal recesses  or  niches,  each  capable  of  admitting  a 
good-sized  coffin,  and  here  are  deposited  the  bodies  of 
those  whose  relatives  are  able  to  pay.  After  the  funeral 
ceremonies  and  interment  in  one  of  these  spaces  the 
entrance  is  bricked  up  and  a  plate  fixed  outside  stating 
the  name  and  age  of  the  lonely  occupant.  He  is  thus 
left  undisturbed  for  a  period  of  years,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  which  time  the  bones  of  the  deceased  are  either 
buried  in  one  of  the  churches  or  else  taken  from  the  coffin 
and  thrown  upon  a  bone  pile  in  the  rear  of  the  cemetery. 

The  monuments  which  the  Spaniards  have  erected 
throughout  the  city  are  hardly  remarkable  and,  archi- 
tecturally, are  deserving  of  little  attention.  The  most 
imposing  structure  in  the  city,  if  it  must  be  confessed, 
is  the  government  ice  plant,  which,  although  not  a 
thing  of  particular  beauty,  is  a  real  blessing. 

Among  the  things  peculiar  to  Manila  which  are 
observed  on  a  grand  scale  are  the  church  processions. 
The  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  affect  the  Filipino  powerfully,  and  these  pro- 
cessions, suggestive  of  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  are 
objects  of  the  greatest  interest  and  reverence  for  the 
natives.  In  the  late  holiday  afternoons  these  may  be 
seen  passing  through  the  streets  with  all  their  pomp, 
—  then  large  crosses,  torchbearers  in  long  rows,  musi- 
cians, and  images  of  the  different  saints  and  of  the 
Virgin  with  the  infant  Jesus,  all  dressed  in  beautiful 


MANILA 


225 


robes  and  glittering  tinsel.  Traffic  is  stoj)ped,  and  the 
whole  population  turns  out  to  witness  the  event.  Natives 
of  every  class  take  part,  and  girls  and  women  with 
lighted  candles  inarch  along  to  the  peculiar,  slow, 
solemn  music.  After  a  series  of  ten  or  more  gorgeously 
arrayed  images  come  the  priests,  bringing  up  the  rear. 
Houses  all  along  the  route  are 
brilliantly  illuminated  and 
decorated,  and  the  atmosphere 
is  a  distinctly  religious  one. 
The  spectacle  is  indeed  im- 
pressive, and  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding appeals  dee23ly  to  the 
people. 

Previous  to  the  coming  of 
the  Americans  no  Protestant 
missionary  was  allowed  to  set 
foot  in  the  Philippines,  nor, 
if  known,  was  a  Protestant 
Bible  permitted  to  enter. 
Since  that  time  several 
churches  have  been  started  by  the  Episcopalians,  Meth- 
odists, Presbyterians,  Baptists,  and  Christian  Scientists 
in  Manila;  and  an  active  brauch  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  the  work  of  which  is  deserving 
of  high  praise,  has  been  established.  The  prospects  a.s 
to  this  Protestant  church  work,  however,  are  not  very 
encouraging.^ 

^  Chapter  on  Superstitions  and  Religion. 


Si'ixiMi-.N  OF   Wood  Carving 
IX  Sr.  Paterno's  Home 

Done  by  a  Filipino 


226  TiiK  rjULipriM-:  islands 

Finally,  a  word  must  be  said  as  to  the  government 
of  Manila,  which  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  District 
of  Columbia.  There  is  a  municipal  board  consisting  of 
three  commissioners,  —  the  president,  a  Filipino  at  a 
salary  of  five  thousand  dollars  a  year,  and  two  Amer- 
icans at  forty-five  hundred  dollars  each.  There  is  also 
a  well-organized  police  force ;  an  efficient  board  of 
health,  which  did  splendid  work  in  the  city  during  the 
ravages  of  the  plague  and  cholera  )jy  maintaining  a 
careful  inspection  of  the  food  and  improving  distinctly 
the  sanitary  conditions  in  the  poorer  quarters  of  the 
city;  a  board  of  puljlic  works  that  has  bettered  the 
streets  and  the  surface  drainage  and  beautified  the  city ; 
a  fire  department  efficiently  organized ;  several  good 
hospitals  and  a  jail,  both  of  which  have  been  radically 
imjDroved  by  the  municipal  authorities.  The  city  as  a 
whole  is  undergoing  a  change  for  the  better,  partic- 
ularly in  its  living  conditions,  and  the  near  future  will 
find  it  as  purely  American  as  it  is  possiljle  to  make 
such  an  eastern  tropical  place. 


PaSIU     KlVF.K 


CHAPTER   IX 
PEOPLE 

The  Philippine  archipehigo  forms  an  ethnic  museum, 
in  which  we  can  study  the  human  race  in  its  manifold 
forms.  Already  a  hint  has  Ijeen  given  of  the  widely 
diverse  conditions  to  which  the  Spaniards  had  to  adapt 
their  administration  and  their  laws ;  they  were  obliged 
to  deal  with  Malay  character  more  or  less  in  its  pure 
form,  while  we  Americans  have  to  do  with  this  same 
character  Latinized.  From  these  diverse  families  —  Ne- 
gritos, Malayans,  and  possibly  Indonesians  —  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Philippines  has  Ijeen  composed.  The  first 
attempts  toward  civilizing  them  fell  to  the  Spaniards, 
and  although  unfortunately  the  Spaniards  have  left 
very  few  written  records  concerning  the  conditions  in 
which  they  found  the  natives,  we  have  been  able  to 
see  in  our  consideration  of  the  earlier  history  of  the 
Islands  that  an  important  work  indeed  must  have  been 
accomplished  by  these  Spanish  tutors  in  lifting  the 
greater  part  of  such  a  conglomerate  population  to  the 
position  in  which  we  found  them  six  years  ago.  We 
know  that  most  of  the  natives,  under  the  direction  of 
their  rulers,  advanced  from  a  state  of  comparative  bar- 
barity to   one   of   at  least   semicivilization ;   that   they 

227 


228  THE  PlllLlPriNE   ISLANDS 

gained  many  neAv  ideas  and  learned  various  industries 
from  the  Spaniards;  and  became  in  large  jDart  Chris- 
tianized. Thus  we  know  that  the  peoples  with  which 
we  became  acquainted  a  few  years  ago  are  in  quite  a 
different  stage  of  development  from  their  aboriginal 
ancestors.  Just  what  these  former  peoples  were  is  a 
fascinating  subject  for  speculation  to  the  person  who 
is  interested  in  anthropology,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  not  for  some  time  to  come  —  until  the  sciences  of 
comparative  philology  and  ethnology  have  had  an  op- 
portunity to  throw  light  upon  these  early  times  and  con- 
ditions in  the  Philippines  —  shall  we  be  aide  to  satisfy 
a  very  lively  curiosity.  With  the  restoration  of  peace 
and  the  establishment  of  civil  government  throughout 
the  Islands,  these  studies  will  surely  be  taken  up  by 
American  scholars,  and  a  most  fruitful  field  for  inves- 
tigation Ije  thrown  open.  Many  historical  data,  which 
will  undoubtedly  be  of  aid  in  any  such  investigation, 
still  remain  hidden  away  in  churches,  monasteries,  and 
official  archives  in  both  the  Philippines  and  Spain.  The 
paramount  position  which  the  church  representatives 
won  in  the  Philippines,  their  influence  upon  the  native 
race,  and  their  social,  religious,  and  semipolitical  organ- 
ization of  this  tropical  people  furnish  a  unique  subject 
for  historical  research.  The  practical  importance,  more- 
over, of  a  thorough  scientific  study  of  the  Filipino  race 
—  their  physical  characteristics,  their  manners,  customs, 
laws,  and  languages  —  is  not  hard  to  see,  for  there  can 


0  ^ 


a>6- 


Ethnological  Map 


229 


230  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

be  no  (l(niljt  that  an  understanding  of  the  ideas  and 
modes  of  thought  of  an  alien  people  in  a  relatively 
low  stage  of  civilization  facilitates  very  considerably 
the  task  of  governing  them. 

The  earliest  information  concerning  the  population 
of  tlie  Philippines  is  for  the  year  1735,  when  the  vari- 
ous religious  orders  reported  a  total  of  837,182  souls 
under  their  jurisdiction.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  compilation  made  from  the  tax  rolls 
for  the  tribute  showed  a  population  of  about  two  mil- 
lion; and  this,  by  the  year  1840,  had  increased  to  three 
million.  During  the  Spanish  rule  there  were  two  sources 
which  were  almost  always  available  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  all  practical 
purposes  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  towns  recog- 
nizing the  Spanish  sovereignty.  These  were  the  assess- 
ment lists  and  the  parochial  records.  Independently  of 
these  two  regular  means,  the  Spanish  government  took 
an  official  census  in  1887,  the  results  of  which  showed 
a  population  just  under  six  million.  Another  official 
census  was  started  some  nine  years  later,  but  the  insur- 
rection of  1896  interrupted  it,  and  on  this  account  it 
was  never  completed,  and  the  results,  such  as  they  were, 
were  not  compiled.  Thus  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of 
the  Americans  only  very  unsatisfactory  data  in  regard 
to  the  immber  of  people  and  their  general  characteristics 
were  available.  The  following  is  a  comment  upon  the 
conditions  previous  to  the  American  occupation,  by 
Professor  Carl  C.  Plehn  of  the  University  of  California, 


PEOPLE  231 

who  held  the  position  of  chief  statistician  for  one  year, 
1900-1901,  with  the  government  at  Manila.    He  says: 

The  most  striking  feature  of  these  tables  is  the  slow  growth 
that  is  indicated.  With  a  death  rate  which  in  normal  years  — 
that  is,  in  years  not  attended  by  some  epidemic  or  other  disaster 
affecting  the  whole  community  —  is  between  30  and  35  per  1000, 
and  a  birth  rate  of  over  50  per  1000,  the  increase  which  might 
be  expected  is  much  greater  than  appears.  The  fact  is  that 
the  growth  of  the  population  has  been  restrained  by  violent 
epidemics  of  the  most  sweeping  character.  A  single  epidemic 
of  smallpox,  cholera,  plague,  influenza,  and  other  diseases  will 
easily  sweep  away  the  natural  growth  for  several  years.  Thus 
in  1879  the  death  rate  is  reported  as  106.3  per  1000  against  a 
birth  rate  of  43.4  per  1000,  while  in  1896,  which  may  be  taken 
as  a  fairly  normal  year,  the  death  rate  was  33.7  and  the  birth 
rate  56.4. 

As  a  basis  of  representation  and  also  of  election  the 
act  of  Congress,  approved  July  1,  1902,  establishing  a 
government  for  the  Philippines,  required  a  census  of 
the  population  to  be  taken,  the  returns  of  which  have 
recently  been  compiled.  These  show  a  population  of 
7,572,199  and  contain  a  large  amount  of  exceedingly 
valuable  information  concerning  the  different  tribes 
and  their  characteristics. 

Fully  five  sixths  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Islands  are 
of  Malayan  extraction  and  speak  dialects  of  a  Malayan 
linguistic  basis.  These  are  the  people  to  whom  the  term 
Filipinos  is  popularly  applied.  The  Spanish  government 
officially  recognized  thirty-five  different  languages  in  the 
archipelago,  and   Blumentritt,  in  arranging  a  scheme 


232  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

for  the  Mala3\an  population  alone,  the  so-called  Fili- 
pinos, divided  it  into  fifty-one  linguistic  groups. 

Tlie  Philippine  archipelago  has  few  large  towns  and 
no  great  manufacturing  centers.  It  is  almost  entirely 
a  rural  country,  and  many  of  the  so-called  towns  are 
mere  groups  of  villages.  The  town  proper,  ov  puehlo,  is 
sometimes  very  small,  with  only  fifty  or  sixty  houses ; 
the  rest  of  the  town,  made  up  of  harrios,  may  spread 
over  a  much  larger  area.  The  term  municipality  often 
means  in  the  Philippines  a  collection  of  small  villages 
or  hamlets  for  the  purpose  of  local  government;  and 
the  pueblo,  or  the  village  selected  as  the  seat  of  this 
local  administration,  gives  its  name  to  the  municipality. 
The  Philippines  as  a  whole  might  support  a  population 
much  denser  than  its  present  one  of  fifty  persons  to  a 
square  mile.  If  the  struggle  for  existence  is  now  some- 
times hard,  it  is  rather  from  lack  of  proper  means  of 
irrigation  than  from  want  of  sufficient  area  of  produc- 
tive land.  With  a  little  more  energy  and  with  somewhat 
improved  methods  of  agriculture,  the  country  would 
yield  much  more  than  just  enough  food  for  its  inhabit- 
ants ;  and  with  better  sanitary  arrangements  about  the 
home  and  a  little  knowledge  of  and  obedience  to  ele- 
mentary rules  of  health,  the  yearly  work  of  disease 
and  death  might  be  materially  checked.  The  birth  rate 
is  very  high,  but  at  the  present  time  the  death  rate  is 
still  higher;  and  the  statement  that  has  been  made  to 
the  effect  that,  eliminating  all  the  deaths  from  cholera, 
beriberi,  and  the  plague,  the  death  rate  in  Manila  is 


PEOPLE  233 

three  times  as  large  as  in  Boston  is  significant,  and 
indeed  holds  true  for  the  provinces  as  well.  In  no  part 
of  the  Philippines  are  there  more  people  than  the  land 
can  feed,  but  on  the  contrary  there  are  vast  tracts  of 
fertile  soil,  superior  to  much  of  that  which  is  now 
under  cultivation,  that  are  untouched.  The  native, 
however,  is  immobile,  and  this  explains  the  absence  of 
people  in  many  of  these  productive  regions.  Railroads, 
good  roads,  and  other  means  of  communication  into  the 
interior  and  across  the  mountains  are  needed  to  open 
up  the  country,  and  before  these  are  supplied  no  great 
activity  in  the  way  of  settling  many  of  these  interior 
sections  can  be  expected. 

A  very  brief  summary  of  the  ethnological  elements 
which  compose  the  population  has  already  been  given 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Islands.  The 
Spaniards,  as  we  know,  divided  the  Filipinos  into 
Christians,  heathens,  and  Mohammedans ;  the  Ameri- 
can government  has  adopted  the  term  non-Christian  to 
designate  the  pagan  and  Mohammedan  tribes  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  Christian  Filipinos  dwelling  in  organized 
provinces  and  towns.  We  have  seen  that  the  great 
racial  divisions  of  the  people  are  the  Negrito,  the 
Malayan,  and  probably  the  Indonesian ;  and  of  these 
the  Spaniards,  in  their  classification,  termed  the  first 
and  third  heathen,  and  the  second  they  divided  into  the 
two  branches  of  Christian  Malays  and  Mohammedan 
Malays.  The  Americans,  when  they  arrived,  adopted 
the  division  of  Christian  Malays  made  by  the  Spaniards 


234  THE  PlIlLl^^l^■E  islands 

and  used  the  term  non-Christian  to  designate  all  the 
other  inha])itants,  and  such  is  its  significance  to-day.  In 
our  discussion  we  shall  deal  hrst  with  the  non-CIiristian 
and  then  with  the  Christian  tribes. 

The  pagan  and  Mohammedan  tribes,  or,  as  we  have 
now  adopted  the  nomenclature,  the  non-Christian  peoples, 
are  found  in  Luzon,  IMindoro,  Panay,  Palawan,  Negros, 
Mindanao,  and  possibly  in  Siiniar.  The  areas  inhabited 
by  them  embrace  hardly  less  than  one  half  of  the  entire 
archipelago,  and  their  numbers  range  between  one  and 
two  millions.  As  has  been  said  by  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners,^ who  speaks  from  experience, "  there  is  a  lamen- 
table lack  of  information  in  regard  to  them  upon  which 
to  base  intelligent  legislation."  Their  presence  and  the 
existence  among  them  of  head  hunting,  slavery,  polyg- 
amy, and  other  objectionaljle  practices  created  serious 
problems  for  the  Insular  Government.  With  a  view 
to  investigating  their  actual  conditions  and  conducting 
scientific  investigation,  a  bureau  of  ethnological  survey 
was  established  during  the  latter  part  of  1901,  and  this 
work  is  now  progressing.  The  classification  of  these 
tribes  and  some  of  the  data  to  be  presented  here  are 
based  upon  the  work  that  has  already  been  accomplished 
by  this  bureau. 

According  to  the  information  which  it  lias  secured, 
tlie  tribes  are  classified  as  follows. 

1.  The  Negritos,  or  little  negroes,  called  the  abo- 
rigines. 

1  Professor  Worcester. 


235 


236  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

2.  The  great  Igorot  tribes  of  northern  Luzon,  a  power- 
ful and  very  numerous  people  numbering  some  seventy 
thousand  in  Lepanto-Bontoc  alone.  They  are  the  most 
experienced  agriculturists  in  the  Islands,  and  have  con- 
structed wonderful  terraces  and  irrigation  works  ;  their 
towns,  too,  are  strong  and  compact.  Head  hunting 
among  them  is  a  practice  which  still  holds  with  the 
force  of  an  ancient  custom. 

3.  The  primitive  tribes,  some  of  which  have  a  mix- 
ture of  Negrito  blood,  are  all  of  a  very  low  grade  of 
culture,  including  the  Manguianes  of  Mindoro  and  the 
Tagbauuas  and  Bataks  of  Palawan.  In  spite  of  their 
low  degree  of  civilization  in  general,  these  people  con- 
tinue to  use  ancient  sjdlabic  written  characters  which 
suggest  at  least  some  culture. 

4.  A  few  small  remnants  of  a  more  primitive  Malayan 
population  than  the  present  Christian  Filipinos,  like  the 
Igorots  on  Mount  Isarog,  the  Buquidnones  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Negros  and  Panay,  and  the  Monteses,  mountain 
dwellers,  sometimes  called  Remontados,  a  term  applied 
to  natives  who  give  up  their  civilized  mode  of  life  and 
return  to  the  mountain  recesses  again.  In  this  class 
are  also  included  the  primitive  tribes  of  the  interior  of 
Mindanao,  —  the  Subanos  in  the  west,  the  Montescos 
further  east,  on  the  north  coast,  the  Tirurays  and  Mano- 
bos  on  the  south,  and  the  group  of  possible  Indonesian 
tribes  on  the  gulf  of  Davao. 

5.  The  Mohammedan  tribes,  or  Moros,  wliicli  fall 
into  several  groups:  the  Maguindanaos  in  the  valley  of 


PEOPLE 


237 


the  Rio  Grande;  the  Lanaos  around  lake  Lanao,  where 
trouble  still  exists;  the  Illanos  westward  along  the 
coast  from  Malabang  to  the  great  peninsula  of  Zambo- 
anga ;  the  Sulus  of  the  Jolo  and  Siassi  groups ;  the 
Samals  scattered  along  the  Zamboanga  coast  and  about 
the  islands  of  Basilan,  Siassi  group,  and  Tawi  Tawi  ; 
and  the  Bajans,  or 
sea  gypsies,  who  are 
born  and  die  on  their 
boats,  and  shift 
about  in  the  archi- 
pelago in  little  fleets 
with  the  changing 
of  the  prevailing 
winds. 

This  fivefold  divi- 
sion of  the  non- 
Christian  tribes  is  a 
purely  tentative  one, 
and  it  is  almost  cer- 
tain that  the  differ- 
ent peoples  shade  off:  from  each  other  into  a  much 
larger  number  of  classes. 

There  are  seven  important  Christian  tribes,  which  are 
classified  in  the  order  of  their  size. 

1.  The  Visayans,  who  inhabit  the  islands  named 
after  them  in  the  central  part  of  the  archipelago,  besides 
the  northern  and  eastern  coasts  of  Mindanao.  At  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  the  islands  they  were  in  the 


Negrito  Boy 


238 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


habit  of  painting  their  bodies,  and  on  this  account 
received  from  the  Spaniards  the  name  of  Pintados, 
which  stuck  to  them  down  to  the  eighteenth  centur\-. 
2.  The  well-known  Tagalogs,  who  inhabit  Manila 
and  central  Luzon  and  present  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  the  Malayan  race  in  the  Philippines. 


Family  of  Negritos 

3.  The  Bicols,  who  are  found  in  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  Luzon. 

4.  The  llocanos,  who  inhabit  the  northern  province 
of  Ilocos  Norte,  Tlocos  Sur,  and  Union,  in  Luzon,  and 
form  the  civic  population  of  Abra. 

5.  The  Pangasinanes,  who  inhabit  the  province  of 
Pangasinan  in  Luzon. 


PEOPLE 


239 


Negrito  Wo:man 


6.  The  Pampangans, 
who  inhabit  the  prov- 
ince of  Pampanga  on 
the  same  island. 

7.  The  Cagayanes, 
who  dwell  in  the  valley 
of  the  Cagayan  river  in 
northern  Luzon. 

Six  of  these  chief 
tribes  are  to  be  found  in 
Luzon,  and  the  seventh,  as  we  noted,  is  spread  over  the 
central  islands.  The  Tagalogs,  Visayans,  and  Ilocanos 
taken  together  form  two  thirds  of  the  entire  population. 
Each  one  of  these  tribes  has  a  language  of  its  own; 
that  of  the  Visayans  is  divided  into   several  dialects, 

the  two  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are 
those  spoken  inCebu 
and  Panay.  Tagalog 
is  spoken  in  Manila 
and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Luzon;  yet  an 
hour's  ride  on  the 
train  will  take  one 
to  Pampanga,  where 
the  local  language  is 
spoken.  A  few  hours 
more  brings  one  to 

Negrito  Shooting  Pangasinan,  where 


240 


THE  rillLlFPlNE  ISLANDS 


still  another  is  used  ;  and  only  a  short  distance  farther 
north  fi-oni  liere  are  provinces  in  which  the  people  con- 
verse in  Ilocano  and  still  other  dialects. 

The  representative  races  are  the  Negritos,  the  first 
inhabitants  of  the  archipelago;  the  Igorots,  the  most 
numerous  and  most  powerful  pagan  tribe;  the  Moros, 


Igorot  Carkiers  on  Mountain  Trail 

or  Mohammedan  Malays  ;  and  the  Christian  Malays, 
of  which  the  Tagiilogs,  the  Visayans,  and  the  Ilocanos 
are  the  principal  divisions. 

The  Negrito  race  is  almost  the  smallest  on  the  globe, 
and  while  suggestively  negroes  in  their  dark  color  and 
frizzly  mops  of  hair,  they  have  neither  the  projection  of 


PEOPLE 


241 


the  lower  jaw  nor  the  long  skull  of  the  African.  They 
are  true  savages,  depending  for  food  upon  the  chase  and 
wild  roots ;  they  do  not  live  in  villages  or  even  build 
huts,  but  roam  through  the  mountains  in  small  groups 
of  a  few  families  each.  These  people  seem  to  be  the 
survival  of  the  unfittest,  and  are  physical  and  mental 
weaklings ;  their  legs  are  like  broomsticks ;  their  feet 


Igokot  Dance,  Lepanto-Bontoc 

are  clumsy  and  large,  and  their  bodies  are  covered  with 
tattoo  marks  in  the  form  of  long  gashes.  They  are 
timid  and  fearful  of  approach,  and  yet  to  a  certain 
extent  they  are  feared  by  the  more  civilized  inhabitants 
of  the  Islands.  Much  study  has  been  devoted  to  the 
distribution  of  these  people  and  their  localities  were 
thought  to  be  determined,  but  recent  correspondence 
conducted  by  the  Ijureau  of  ethnological  survey  reveals 


242 


TTTH  rillLlPriNK    ISLANDS 


their  jDresence  in  several  hitherto  unrecorded  regions. 
It  has  been  invariably  stated  that  their  numbers  are 
dwindling,  and  recent  estimates  have  placed  them  as 

low  as  ten  thousand ; 
but  the  bureau's  cor- 
respondence and 
field  investigations 
seem  to  indicate  that 
they  are  at  least  hold- 
ing their  own  at  the 
present  time,  and  no 
less  than  thirty  thou- 
sand have  been  ac- 
curately reported 
from  all  parts  of  the 
Islands. 

The  number  of 
problems  presented 
to  the  ethnologist  by 
these  little  blacks  is 
almost  bewildering. 
The  question  arises, 
What  place  have  they 
in  the  evolution  of 
man?  Their  identity  with  the  Sakais  of  the  Malay 
peninsula  and  the  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman  islands  is 
almost  certain,  but  their  relation  to  those  other  pygmies, 
the  long-skuUed  dwarfs  of  central  Africa,  is  mere  specu- 
lation, and  similarly  their  connection  with  the  true  negro 


^^^^^^^^^^B^HH^^''.''^^i^:£^  ^ 

MM 

qK^SS]  .«^ 

W    ^'    -^ 

J|^T|r 

I 

1     K  ^^ 

f.-f 

1l 

-   1  «^   Jf' 

1 

^amm 

Igouot   \\  ai;i;i(ii: 


PEOPLE 


243 


race  of  Melanesia  close  by.  In  general,  the  geographic 
distribution  of  this  Negrito  people  is  such  that  the  only 
conclusion  which  seems  possible  is  that  at  one  time  they 
were  practically  the  sole  possessors  of  the  Philippine 
archipelago. 

Unquestionably  the  first  to  arrive  and  dispute  the  pos- 
session of  this  aboriginal  race  and  to  drive  them  into 


Igohot  Village 

the  mountainous  interiors  which  they  now  occupy  were 
the  tribes  of  primitive  Malayans  that  still  constitute  the 
most  considerable  element  of  the  non-Christian  pop- 
ulation of  the  Islands.  Among  these  are  the  great 
Igorot  family  of  the  Cordillera  Central  of  Luzon,  while 
in  the  great  mountainous  region  of  northern  Luzon  are 
numerous  other  tribes  speaking  different  dialects  Ijut  of 


244 


THE  PHILIPPIXE   ISLANDS 


common  Malayan  origin.  These  are  on  a  similar  plane 
with  the  primitive  Malayan  tribes  of  the  Malay  archi- 
pelago and  have  the  same  barbarous  practices  of  head 
hunting  and  ceremonial  cannibalism,  and  wage  similar 
community  feuds. 

The  Igorots  number  some  two  hundred  thousand  peo- 
ple altogether,  and  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  have 
studied  them  are  a  strong,  splendid  people,  among  the 


Carrying  Ca.motks  to  Makkki 
Very  typical  of  the  occupation  and  appearance  of  the  Igorot  woman 

most  interesting  and  important  savage  races  of  the 
world.  They  give  promise  of  increasing,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Ilocano  coast  and  the  shores  of 
the  Cagayan  river,  of  dominating  in  some  future  time 
this  northern  portion  of  Luzon.    Rizal  voiced  this  same 


PEOPLE 


245 


opinion  when  he  said  that  the  future  of  the  Islands  lies 
in  the  people  of  the  mountains. 

A  group  of  these  people  once  visited  the  writer  in 
Manila  and  impressed  him  as  being  potentially  strong 
and  possessing  much  solidarity.  They  had  come  down 
from  the  Lepanto-Bontoc 
mountains  in  charge  of 
a  sympathetic  American 
miner,  and  were  await- 
ing an  audience  with  the 
governor  for  the  purpose 
of  gaining  permission  to 
kill  a  bad  man  who  had 
been  robbing  them,  and 
of  securing  from  the 
school  department  flags 
and  books  which  made 
no  mention  of  religion. 

They  are  as  a  whole 
simple,  honest,  frank,  and 
tractable,  and  possessed  of  a  sense  of  humor  not  to  be 
observed  in  members  of  the  so-called  Christian  tribes. 
In  regard  to  religion  they  seem  to  be  much  like  the 
North  American  Indian,  nature  worship  prevailing; 
the  sun  in  their  belief  is  the  Father  of  All ;  the  moon, 
a  good  big  Igorot ;  and  the  stars,  good  little  Igorots. 
If  they  are  good,  the  sun  smiles ;  and  if  bad,  it  hides 
its  face  and  weeps.  Christianity  has  never  gained  foot- 
ing among  these  pagans,  and  their  life  has  remained 


Igorot  Boy  in  Service  of  an 
American  Family 


246 


THE  PI11L1]*P1NE   ISLANDS 


unaffected  by  the  changes  ^vhich  have  influenced  the 
other  parts  of  the  archipelago.  Their  most  ancient  cus- 
toms still  hold,  and  as  yet  in  the  case  of  some  of  the 
tribes  the  custom  of  securing  the  head  and  sometimes 
the  heart  and  hands  of  their  victims  as  trophies  to  be 

displayed  at  then' 
feasts  as  relics, 
though  discouraged, 
is  not  wholly  stamped 
out.  The  practice, 
however,  is  not  as 
general  as  has  often 
been  reported  and  is 
dying  out  among  the 
minority  with  wdiom 
it  has  been  custom- 
ary. The  majority 
of  tlie  Igorots,  al- 
though so  hardy  and 
uncivilized,  are  any- 
thing but  fierce  and 
warlike;  peaceful 
and  self-satisfied  are  terms  that  better  describe  them, 
and  the  friendship  which  has  grown  up  between 
them  and  the  Americans  is  tending  constantly  to 
make   them   more   so. 

The  Moros  were  the  last  of  the  pre-Spanish  people  to 
arrive  in  tlio  Islands,  and  probably  began  to  come  some 
time  subsequent  to  the  thirteenth  century,  after  their 


Jgukot  Mother 


PEOPLE 


247 


conversion  to  Mohammedanism  in  their  former  home 
during  the  twelfth  century.  By  the  time  of  the  Span- 
ish advent  their  out- 
posts reached  as  far 
north  as  Manila  bay, 
and  it  is  probably 
true  that  their  faith 
in  many  places  had 
been  imposed  upon 


Igouot  Home 

the  Malay  natives  of  the 
central  and  northern  regions 
of  the  archipelago.  The  cen- 
turies of  conflict  between  the 
Spaniards  and  tlie  piratical 
Moros  of  Mindanao,  who 
came  as  far  as  Manila  itself, 
have  already  been  dwelt  upon. 
This  group  of  Moros  in  gen- 
eral, numbering  at  least  a 
quarter  of  a  million,  is  of 
great  significance  politically 
to  the  American  govern- 
ment. They  are  the  only 
non-Christian  people  which 
can  offer  any  serious  menace  to  public  order  or  to  the 
peace  of  any  important  portion  of  the  archipelago. 


IgOROT   WOiMAN 


248 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


During  tlie  earlier  period  of  hostilities  in  the  Philip- 
pines the  friendliest  relations  seemed  to  exist,  and  the 
fierce    and    nncompromising    inhabitants    of    the    lake 

Lanao  region 
were  quiet.  But 
they  are  natu- 
rally suspicious 
of  all  foreigners, 
and  althouo;li  the 
American  mili- 
tary authorities 
did  everything 
possible  to  win 
their  confidence, 
it  became  evi- 
dent later  that 
trouble  was 
bound  to  come ; 
conflicts  followed 
and  as  a  result 
many  of  these 
interior  people 
still  remain  recal- 
citrant. 

Among  these 
Moros  slavery  exists  very  generally,  and  this  custom, 
so  utterly  at  variance  with  the  principles  of  the  consti- 
tution which  now  extends  over  these  dependencies,  has 
been  the  source  of  much  concern.     It  is  true,  however, 


^loKO    WaKHIOR 


MoRO  Group,  Zamboanga 


]\loRO  Town,  Mindanao 


249 


250 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


that  the  practice,  although  widespread,  is  followed  now 
in  a  mild  form  only,  and  the  old  traffic  in  slaves  has 
almost  entirely  disappeared.  Indeed,  the  fact  that  there 
are  slaves  at  all  is  strange  enough  to  Americans,  and 
yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  this  institution  is  by 

no  means  confined  to 
the  Moros,  for  it  is 
common  also  among 
the  wild  Indonesian 
tribes  in  the  interior 
of  Mindanao  and  the 
uncivilized  Malayan 
peoples  of  northern 
Luzon,  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  such  a  practice 
must  be  patiently 
awaited  as  one  of 
the  results  of  the  ex- 
tension of  civil  gov- 
ernment and  the 
American  training  of 
these  people. 

The  slaves  are  usually  procured  when  children,  either 
l)y  force  or  because  of  indebtedness.  As  they  come  to 
maturity  they  become  of  less  value,  it  being  more  diffi- 
cult to  retain  them  and  make  them  work.  Their  condi- 
i'um  is  far  from  unendurable,  however,  for  their  labor 
is  not  arduous,  and  if  they  seriously  desire  it,  it  seems 
always  possible  for  them  to  i)ur chase  their  freedom.    The 


^luKo  Datto,  Zamboanga 


PEOPLE 


251 


slave  eats  and  sleeps  in  the  same  house  as  his  master 
and,  indeed,  is  treated  more  like  a  retainer  than  a  bond- 
man. Views  differ,  nevertheless,  as  to  the  nature  of  this 
servitude,  and  the  writer  has  been  informed  by  teachers 
who  have  been  close  observers  of  this  practice  that  it  is 
a  cruel  and  vicious  institution  accompanied  by  inhu- 
manity. Children,  they  report,  can  be  bought  and  sold, 
—  little  boys  of  tender  years  for  from  sixteen  to  twenty- 
five  dollars,  and  little  girls  for  from  thirty  to  thirty-five 


MoRO  Weapons 

dollars.  However  true  tliis  may  be  generally,  the  man- 
ner in  which  our  government  must  necessarily  discoun- 
tenance any  such  custom  is  sure  to  have  the  effect  of 
shortening  the  life  of  such  a  practice. 

In  1898  the  w^ell-known  Bates  Treaty  with  the  sultan 
of  Sulu,  wdio  is  also  the  sultan  of  north  Borneo  and  the 
head  of  the  Moro  tribes  of  this  whole  region,  Avas  rati- 
fied, with  the  reservation,  however,  that  our  government 
could  in  no  way  recognize  the  existence  of  slavery  in 
the  Moro  dominions.     This  agreement  provided  for  the 


252 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


extension  of  a  protectorate  over  the  Moro  country,  and 
guaranteed  to  the  sultan  autonomy  m  local  affairs,  and 
a  yearly  income  to  be  paid  by  the  United  States.    The 

sultan  is  a  despotic 
ruler  having  abso- 
lute power  even  as 
to  life  and  death, 
and  our  government 
found  itself  in  rather 
a  strange  position  by 
being  bound  to  aid 
in  the  maintenance 
of  such  a  form  of 
rule.  Hence  it  be- 
came early  apparent 
that  some  more 
satisfactory  arrange- 
ment with  the  sultan 
would  have  to  be 
made,  and  more 
recently  the  treaty 
has  been  abrogated. 
The  sultan  is  the 
nominal  head  of  his 
people,  with  an  army 
of  some  twenty  thousand  troops,  the  equal  of  double  that 
number  of  Filipinos.  But  in  reality  he  has  no  strong  con- 
trol over  the  different  tribes,  who  are  ruled  immediately 
by  their  respective  clattos,  many  of  whom  are  stronger 


Moro  Warkiok  with  Coat  of  Mail 


PEOPLE 


253 


personalities  than  the  sultan  himself,  who  is  incapable 
oftentimes,  and  particiilarl}-  just  now,  of  holding  these 
various  local  rulers  with  their  followers  in  check.  His 
position  is  becoming  more  and  more  that  of  a  nominal 
rather  than  an  actual  ruler  of  these  Mohammedan  people. 

As  to  the  Moros 
themselves,  they  are 
a  much  hardier  race 
than  the  Christian 
Filipinos,  and  are 
fiercer  and  more 
warlike.  They  are 
strong,  agile,  of  me- 
dium height,  with  a 
dark,  copper-colored 
complexion;  their 
hair  is  straia-ht, 
black,  and  very  abun- 
dant; their  eyes  are 
small,  keen,  and 
black;  and  their 
noses  are  broad  Ijut  not  flattened.  They  are  cunning, 
deceitful,  and  suspicious ;  they  are  possessed  of  the 
greatest  personal  valor  mixed  with  a  strong  religious 
fanaticism,  and  at  all  times  they  display  a  complete 
indifference  to  the  feelings  and  sufferings  of  others. 
Life  itself  is  of  no  great  value,  and  their  religion 
teaches  them  that  it  is  glorious  to  sacrifice  it  in  de- 
stroying Christians. 


]MuKO    WOMKX 


254 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


From  early  }outli  the  Moro  is  trained  to  arms  and 
lie  habitually  wears  the  native  Av/.s,  haroiuj,  cainpilan, 
and  other  weapons.  To  be  seen  without  them  is  a  dis- 
grace, and  to  use  them  with  effect  in  gaining  the  scalps 
of  their  Christianized  neighbors  is  a  matter  of  pride. 
Now  and  then  it  happens  that  a  Moro,  dissatisfied  with 
his  master  or  disgusted  with  life  or  seized  with  religious 

zeal,  prepares  him- 
self for  his  depar- 
ture to  the  lands 
beyond.  He  will  clip 
his  hair  close,  shave 
his  eyebrows,  pare 
the  nails  of  his 
fingers  and  toes, 
and  then  start  out 
to  kill  whatever 
Christians  he  may 
meet,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  winning  a 
heavenly  reward.  This  fanaticism  accounts  for  the 
deaths  by  treachery  of  numljers  of  our  soldiers  among 
these  people,  and  the  custom  seems  to  hold  even  after 
severe  punishment. 

The  Moro  problem  is  in  every  way  a  distinctly  pecul- 
iar and  difficult  one,  as  the  people  are  so  essentially 
different  in  their  institutions,  their  religion,  and  their 
practices  from  those  in  other  parts  of  the  Islands ;  and 
the  Philippine  Commission  has  been  wise  in  the  manner 


Mono   WO.MAN 


PE(  )PLE 


255 


in  which  it  lias  established  for  these  people  a  separate 
government  with  a  military  governor.  Already  there 
have  been  results.    The  most  important  seat  of  Moro 


GUOUP   OF    MOUO    GlliLS 

power  —  the  country  around  lake  Lanao  — haS  been  cap- 
tured. Successful  expeditions  have  been  undertaken 
against  insubordinate  dattos ;  slave  hunting  and  mur- 
dering have  been  put  a  stop  to  in  many  parts  of  the 
island. 


CHAPTER   X 

PEOPLE  (continued) 

We  come  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  natives  com- 
posing the  seven  great  tribes  of  Christians  which  form 
jDolitically  and  socially  the  Filipino  people.  They  are, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  Tagdlogs  of  central  Luzon,  the  Vi- 
sayans  of  the  central  islands  and  northern  Mindanao, 
the  Ilocanos  of  the  northwest  coast  of  Luzon,  the 
Bicoh  of  the  southeastern  portion  of  Luzon,  the  Pcin- 
(jasinanes  and  PamjKinrjans  of  the  central  plain  of 
Luzon,  and  the  Cagayanes  of  Luzon,  along  the  valley 
of  the  river  giving  them  that  name.  Almost  certain  it 
is  that  these  tribes  came  to  the  Philippines  some  time 
subsequent  to  the  arrival  of  the  Igorots  and  the  other 
pagan  tribes,  and  had,  before  the  arrival  of  the  Span- 
iards, forced  back  into  the  mountains  these  less  cultured 
heathen  people.  From  tlie  uniform  structural  basis  of 
their  languages  scliolars  infer  that  they  were  of  a  com- 
mon Malayan  source,  and  are  probably  the  modern 
descendants  of  the  second  great  Malayan  immigration 
wliich  took  place  between  100  and  500  a.d.  From 
some  Aryan  source  they  acquired  alphabets,  the  knowl- 
edge of  writing,  and  other  arts  of  civilization,  wdiich 
considerably  elevated   them   above   the   plane    of   the 

256 


PEOPLE  257 

interior  tribes ;  and  a  Sanskrit  element  lias  also  been 
found,  at  least  in  the  Tagtilog  language. 

Ethnologically,  the  typical  Filipino,  using  the  term 
to  designate  a  member  of  one  of  these  Christian  Malayan 
tribes,  may  be  described  as  of  small  stature ;  slender 
frame  ;  In-ownish-yellow  skin ;  symmetrical  skull ;  prom- 
inent cheekbones;  low  nasal  bridge;  nostrils  prominent ; 


Xative  Tagalogs  at  Malabox,  Luzon 

eyes  narrow,  black,  and  brilliant,  with  thick  curved 
eyebrows  and  long  lashes;  mouth  from  medium  to 
large,  with  thick  but  not  large  lips  ;  chin  short,  round, 
and  almost  hairless ;  and  hair  black,  heavy,  and  straight. 
He  is  not  as  thickset  as  the  real  Malay  of  the  penin- 
sula, though  the  i\])e  varies  greatly  among  the  different 
peoples. 

These    Tagalogs,  Visayans,   Ilocanos,   and    the   four 
other  Christian  races  constitute  five  sixths  of  the  total 


258 


T]IK  IMIlLIPriNE  ISLANDS 


population.  The  Tagulog  is  the  most  important  race 
in  the  archipelago,  with  a  distinct  superiority  in  mental 
capacity,  energy,  and  ambition.     Perhaps  it  is  for  these 

reasons  that  it  has 
furnished  nearly  all 
the  insurrectionary 
leaders  ;  and  the 
restlessness  thus 
displayed  by  them 
may  be  attributed 
to  an  admixture  of 
Chinese  or  other 
foreign  blood.  The 
Visayan  type  is  pos- 
sibly more  uniform 
and  more  robust 
than  the  Tagalog, 
whicli  in  turn  seems 

Wealthy  Filipino  Gikl  to    be   more    sympa- 

A  Tagalog  thetic  and  more 

characteristically  hospitable  than  the  former,  due  no 
doubt  to  the  greater  frequency  of  contact  with  Euro- 
peans. The  more  pronounced  conservatism  of  the  Vi- 
sayans  is  also  thus  explained.  Of  all  these  tribes,  the 
Ilocanos  are  the  most  industrious,  tractable,  and  open- 
hearted.  The  other  tribes  have  not  preserved  their 
individuality  to  the  same  degree  as  have  these  three, 
and  the  Pangasinanes  and  Pampangas  in  particular  have 
absorbed  nnich  of  the  Tau-iiloi?  nature. 


PEOPLE 


259 


The  crossing  of  blood  with  other  peoples  has  further- 
more modified  all  of  these  separate  types  and  made 
their  classification  the  more  complex.  Admixture 
of  Negrito  blood  is  shown  in  different  individuals  by 
their  small  size,  curling  or  undulating  hair,  and  the 
darker  color  of  their  skins.  From  the  intermarriage 
with  Spaniards,  again,  there  has  sprung  a  race  called 
Spanish-Mestizos,  a  numerous  and  powerful  class,  whose 
influence  is  felt  strongly  in  political  and  industrial 
affairs.^  The  admix- 
ture of  Chinese  blood 
has  also  profoundly 
modified  the  early 
Filipino  type,  and  in 
fact,  in  the  mixing 
of  this  with  the  Fil- 
ipino blood,  the 
former  is  so  potent 
that  a  small  pro- 
portion suffices  to 
produce  a  wide  varia- 
tion from  the  original 
Malayan  type,  —  a 
fact  that  has  a  direct 
bearing  upon  an  im- 
portant question  in  the  Islands,  that  is,  the  admission 
or  exclusion  of  the   Chinese.     If  no  restriction  were 


Native  Costume 
A  Tag 


1  Dr.  de  Tavera,  one  of  the  commissioners,  and  Chief  Justice  Arellano 
of  the  Supreme  Court  are  both  of  this  class. 


260 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


placed  upon  their  coming,  Chinese  Ijlood  might  eventu- 
ally take  the  place  of  the  Malayan  and  we  might  then 
have  a  Chinese  dependency  on  our  hands,  —  from  which 
condition  we  might  well  seek  deliverance.  The  Chinese- 
Filipino,  or  Chinese- 
Mestizo,  as  this  half- 
breed  is  called,  is  apt 
to  be  somewhat  taller 
than  the  typical  Fil- 
ipino, and  his  eyes 
are  more  oblique. 
This  class  is  influen- 
tial, particularly  in 
local  trade  and  indus- 
try, and  the  women, 
too,  have  a  keen  busi- 
ness instinct.  The 
Chinese  infusion,  on 
the  whole,  turns  out 
a  sharp,  intelligent, 
ambitious,  but  un- 
trustworthy individ- 
ual. 

Of  the  foreigners  in  the  Philippines  mention  should 
not  properly  be  made  in  this  chapter,  with  the  one 
exception  of  the  Chinese,  who  socially  and  industrially 
are  so  closely  intermixed  with  the  natives  themselves 
as  to  require  some  consideration.  It  is  thought  that 
this  people,  long  before  the  arrival  of  tlie  Spaniards, 


Type  of  Stupid  Chinese-Mestizo 


PEOPLE 


261 


carried  on  trade  and  commerce  with  the  Malayan  pop- 
ulation of  the  Philippines,  and  that  after  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Spaniards  had  established  commerce  with 
Acapulco,  thus  introducing  Mexican  silver,  which  was 
greatly  coveted  by  the  Chinese,  this  trade  became  more 
active  and  they  came  to  the  Islands  in  greater  numbers. 


Group  of  Visayan  Children  from  the  Best 
Families,  Cuyo 

Natives,  however,  unable  to  get  along  industrially  with 
these  people,  formed  a  dislike  for  them  at  the  outset  and 
seized  every  opportunity  to  show  it.  The  rigid  exclu- 
sion of  the  Chinese  has  been  one  of  the  articles  in 
every  revolutionary  propaganda,  and  had  it  not  been 
for  the  large  revenues  which  the  Spanish  government 
received  from  the  Chinese,  this  hated  class  would  have 
been  at  the  least  deported. 


262 


THK  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Being  an  essential  1}'  gregarious  people,  the  Chinese 
love  large  cities,  where  there  are  more  opjDort unities  for 
making  money,  and  hence  nearly  all  of  them  in  the 
Philippines  live  either  in  Manila  or  in  some  half-dozen 
other  places.  One  fifth  of  the  population  of  the  capital 
is  composed  of  these  people ;  and  they  are  engaged 
in  nearly  every  form  of  work,  though  their  particular 
sphere  is  trade.  The  small  shopkeepers  here,  the  car- 
penters, tailors,  shoe- 
makers,  furniture 
dealers,  and  cooks 
are  practically  all 
Chinese ;  they  also 
figure  largely  as 
merchants,  contract- 
ors, shipbuilders, 
blacksmiths,  farmers, 
and  coolies.  The 
Chinaman  possesses 
the  trading  instinct 
of  the  Jew  plus  a  willingness  to  jjerform  hard  manual 
labor  which  the  Jew  and,  we  might  add,  the  Filipino 
despise.  He  shows  commendable  adaptability  in  his 
promptness  in  procuring  American  tools  and  food  prod- 
ucts,—  just  that  sort  of  adaptability  which  the  Filipino 
lacks.  As  is  true  everywhere,  the  Chinaman  is  willing 
to  accept  a  smaller  profit  than  any  one  else,  and  in 
trading  with  the  upcountry  natives  he  shows  a  wonder- 
ful  patience.    The  one  serious  charge  that  is  brought 


Ilocano  Women,  Victoria,  Tarlac 
Taken  to  show  manner  of  carrying  babies 


PEOPLE 


263 


against  him  is  liis  practice  of  using  false  weights  and 
measures  and  of  adulterating  his  stock  ;  but  this  cannot 
now  be  carried  on  to  any  extent  because  of  the  laws 
governing  the  matter. 

However  unpopular  tlie  Chinese  may  be,  they  have 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  Filipino  wives.  Thrift  out- 
weighs sentiment.    The  hard-working  Chinaman  makes 


Ilocaxo  A'illage 

a  good  husband  ;  his  children  have  far  more  energy  than 
the  natives ;  and  they  are  superior  to  the  pure  Filipino 
in  ability  and  force  of  character.^ 

We  are  now  able  to  understand,  to  a  degi^ee,  of 
wliat  diverse  and  varied  elements  the  population  of  the 

1  Mabini,  known  as  the  "brains  of  the  insurrection,"  was  one  of  this 
Chinese-Mestizo  class,  and  his  steadfastness  to  the  cause  won  the  respect  of 
every  American. 


264  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Pliilippines  is  composed.  Heterogeneity  is  its  chief 
characteristic,  and  the  Filipino  races  hardly  constitute  a 
people.  The  Spaniards  used  the  term  Indian  in  speak- 
ing collectively  of  these  seven  Christian  tribes  and  the 
word  Filipino  in  speaking  of  any  one  born  in  the  Islands 
without  distinction  as  to  religious  beliefs ;  even  a  child 
of  Spanish  parentage  born  in  the  Philippines  was,  to 
the  home  authorities,  a  Filipino.  The  Americans,  for 
obvious  reasons,  have  not  adopted  the  word  Indian,  and 
have  been  very  careless  in  the  use  of  the  word  Filipino. 
In  the  discussion  of  the  non-Xegrito,  non-Igorot,  and 
non-Moro  natives  upon  which  we  are  now  entering,  for 
the  want  of  a  more  accurate  title  the  writer  will  use 
the  term  Filipino,  which  is  to  be  understood  hereafter 
to  refer  to  the  Christianized  and  civilized  native. 

A  thorough  understanding  of  Filipino  character  and 
political  capacity  is  at  once  recognized  as  interesting 
and  important  for  Americans  who  would  attempt  to 
govern  the  Filipinos  and  advance  their  civilization. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  Islands,  like  all  eastern  tropi- 
cal peoples,  are  very  unlike  w^estern  people  of  the  tem- 
perate regions.  There  is  an  entire  want  of  sympathy 
between  oriental  and  occidental  ideas,  and  it  is  almost 
impossible,  without  long  association,  for  one  to  be  able 
to  understand  the  other.  This  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  case  of  the  Chinaman  who  cannot  understand  how 
the  American  or  European  can  go  so  long  without 
eating  rice  ;  or  why  we  all  dress  alike  ;  or  how  it  is 
that   we   seem   to   consider  women  the  equal  in  rank 


PEOPLE 


265 


with  men.  And  the  same  inal)ility  to  understand  us  is 
found  to  be  true  of  the  Fihpinos  in  their  way.  Some 
time  ago  a  letter  of  complaint  appeared  in  a  Tagalog 
paper  to  the  effect  that  the  noise  made  by  the  school 
exercises  one  afternoon  in  a  certain  district  interfered 
greatly  with  the  noon  siesta  of  tliose  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. That  the  education  of  the  children  was  a  matter 
of  more  impor- 
tance than  the 
siesta  of  a  few 
people  who  prob- 
ably did  scarcely 
more  than  three 
or  four  hours' 
work  in  twenty- 
four  did  not  of 
course  occur  to 
the  complainant, 
with  whom  the 
editor  also  expressed  sympathy.  This  trifling  incident 
is  sufficient  to  suggest  the  difference  of  American  and 
Filipino  viewpoints.  It  must  also  be  understood  that 
although  Filipinos  are  eager  for  education,  their  ambition 
is  Filipino,  not  American.  They  believe  that  education 
means  money  without  work ;  as  one  keen,  sympathetic 
observer  among  the  American  teachers  wrote,  "While  we 
look  upon  learning  as  training  for  life  work,  they  regard 
it  as  a  means  of  getting  along  without  work."  We 
might  also  add  that  they  consider  it  a  means  of  obtaining 


\'am  I'am;  a    (  11 1 1  m!!  i:n 


206  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

power,  a  thing  which  they  are  always  prone  to  worship. 
Antipathy  to  work,  especially  of  the  manual  sort,  has 
been  a  j)owerful  ojDposing  force  to  American  endeavors 
to  introduce  a  system  of  education  fundamentally  in- 
dustrial in  character ;  the  extravagant  expectations 
prevailing  at  home  of  what  education  will  do  for  the 
Filipino  races  are  based  on  a  knowledge  of  American 
and  not  Filipino  character.  Nor  must  we  underrate 
the  conservatism  of  the  Filipino ;  for  these  people  are 
not  nearly  so  anxious  as  a  body  to  elevate  themselves 
to  the  plane  of  American  civilization  as  it  would  at 
first  appear. 

Let  us  first  turn  to  the  children,  for  it  was  these 
with  whom  the  writer  had  most  to  do  during  his  stay 
in  the  Islands,  and  in  whom  his  interest  and  hope 
centered.  The  children  of  the  Philippines  are  those  of 
promise  ;  they  are  docile,  quick,  and  mentally  alert ; 
they  have  an  aptness  for  acquiring  languages,  a  natu- 
ral talent  for  the  lesser  mechanical  arts,  and  they 
draw  and  write  well.  The  majority  of  the  school  chil- 
dren are  young  looking  and  attractive,  and,  further, 
there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they  excel  in  docility,  imi- 
tativeness,  and  attentiveness.  By  docility  is  meant  that 
they  are  easy  to  manage  and,  in  their  willingness  to 
be  taught,  ready  to  assume  a  certain  subordinate  sta- 
tion in  their  relations  with  the  teacher.  In  this  they 
certainly  surpass  American  children,  who  are  prob- 
ably the  least  docile  ones  that  ever  lived.  That  they 
excel  in  imitativeness,  too,  is  shown  in  everything  that 


PEOPLE  267 

they  learn  from  the  American  teachers,  such  as  draw- 
ing and  modeling,  as  well  as  writing,  spelling,  and 
speaking.  This  superiority  in  imitative  ability  is  also 
to  be  observed  among  the  Japanese,  Chinese,  Javanese, 
and  Hindu  children ;  but  the  Filipinos,  in  accomplish- 
ing results  with  this  parrotlike  facility,  lack  the  patience 
of  some  of  these  other  children.  Persistency  is  a  trait 
that  is  not  so  often  met  with  as  among  Americans. 
And  while  it  is  possible  to  believe  that  the  average 
level  of  intelligence  and  ability  is  high  among  Filipino 
school  children,  there  seems  reason  to  doubt  that  in- 
dividuals of  conspicuous  intellectual  superiority  are 
numerous.  As  American  teachers  reported,  there  are 
not  many  who  rise  far  above  the  general  level  of 
ability  and  accomplishment.  Reticence,  probably  due 
to  timidity,  characterizes  the  native  children  ;  and  forti- 
tude, which  accompanies  courage,  is  lacking.  They  are 
likewise  deficient  in  patient  endurance  and  ability  to 
apply  themselves  to  their  tasks.  The  school  qualities, 
neatness  and  accuracy,  are  possible  with  them ;  but 
punctuality,  regularity,  truthfulness,  and  industry  fall 
short  of  their  desire  to  learn.  They  surpass  American 
children  in  memory  ;  the  American  children  are  superior 
to  them  in  originality  and  also  in  the  power  to  study, 
to  think,  and  to  do.  There  is  without  doubt  a  greater 
tendency  to  lie  among  Filipino  children  and  a  greater 
readiness  and  skill  in  falsehood,  not  due  to  any  innate 
depravity,  but  rather  perhaps  to  a  ''  certain  careless- 
ness and  generous  disregard  of  truth."     One  of  the 


268  THE  PHll.LPPINE   ISLANDS 

more  experienced  Anieriean  teachers,  in  a  letter  to  the 
w]-iter  comparing  American  city  children  of  the  poorer 
classes  with  Filipino  children,  wrote  : 

It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  we  can  teach  them  to  be  honest 
and  truthful.  At  present  they  do  not  possess  tliese  virtues.  I 
believe  they  really  love  to  lie,  and  they  often  do  so  without  any 
apparent  cause. 

With  the  large  majorit}'  there  seems  to  he  absolutely 
no  moral  ol^ligation  to  speak  the  truth.  These  children 
are  not  at  all  pugnacious,  and  a  schoolboy  fight  is  very 
rare.  Often  they  are  inquisitive  and  not  always  deli- 
cate in  their  questions.  Affection  is  prominent  among 
their  strong  traits,  and  they  are  very  fond  of  each  other, 
their  parents,  and  their  teachers.  They  are  polite  and 
respectful  toward  strangers  and  superiors,  and  among 
their  companions  are  enthusiastic  and  full  of  life.  They 
have  their  own  peculiar  games,  into  all  of  which  they 
enter  heartily,  but  the  most  popular  are  those  contain- 
ing a  gambling  element. 

In  his  youth  the  Filipino  boy  is  often  attractive  and 
interesting,  with  his  slight  figure  and  rich  brown  skin, 
suggestive  of  a  bronze  statue,  his  bright  eyes,  long 
black  eyelashes  and  eyebrows,  and  his  expression  of 
cheerful  carelessness.  The  girls  are  not  as  attractive ; 
they  need  constant  encouragement  in  the  schoolroom 
and  are  keenly  sensitive  to  a  look  or  word.  The  writer's 
belief  is  that  up  to  a  certain  point  Filipino  children  are 
quicker  intellectually  than  American  youths ;  but  this 


PEOPLE 


269 


view  is  not  shared  by  all  tlie  American  teachers,  many 
of  whom  reported  that  the  Filipino  child  does  not  excel 
the  American  child  in  anything.  One  teacher  neverthe- 
less supplemented  her  dissent  by  saying,  "  However,  I 
am  delighted  with  what  I  consider  the  possibilities  of 
the  Filipino  child."    Another  added,  "He  has,  however, 


Bull  in  the  Ring 


a  ready  mind  and  a  fairly  retentive  memory."  Still 
another,  one  of  long  experience  in  the  Indian  schools, 
wrote,  "  Inferior  even  to  the  American  Indian  child." 
One  other,  finally,  gave  the  following  interesting  opin- 
ion :  "  To  my  mind,  the  Filipino  child  does  not  excel 
the  American  child  markedly  in  anything.  His  appar- 
ent extraordinary  aptitude  I  attribute  to  his  absolute 


270  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

ignorance  of  the  subjects  we  teach.  -This  is  illustrated  in 
the  case  of  a  man  of  normal  intelligence  who  has  never 
learned  to  read.  His  memory  will  retain  three  times  as 
much  of  an  article  he  hears  read  as  that  of  his  literary 
neighbor,  whose  mind  is  crammed  by  constant  reading." 

As  to  the  intellectual  status  of  the  adults  themselves, 
the  opinion  of  one  of  the  teachers  of  these  grown-up 
Filipinos  in  one  of  the  night  schools  is  very  near  the 
truth.  In  his  opinion,  it  is  the  ignorance  of  the  people, 
old  and  young,  that  is  the  pitiable  aspect  of  the  situa- 
tion. Ignorance  is  evident  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 
so  to  speak,  of  mental  content.  Ideas  are  not  only  few, 
but  abstract  ideas  are  rare.  In  the  native  learning  Eng- 
lish the  use  of  nouns  is  acquired  more  readily  than  the 
use  of  adjectives;  so  our  task  is  not  to  enable  him  to 
pass  from  one  language  to  another  as  a  medium  of 
thought  and  expression,  but  to  furnish  the  material 
of  thought  as  well. 

The  Filipinos  show  no  signs  of  becoming  an  intellect- 
ual people.  They  have  been  compared  with  the  Japan- 
ese, and  both  are  quick-witted  and  imitative,  but  Japan- 
ese children  are  somewhat  more  persevering.  Japanese 
adults  are  not  as  intellectually  apathetic  as  the  Fili- 
pinos, and  they  display  a  little  more  originality  together 
with  a  greater  keenness  in  practical  affairs.  Always 
excepting  the  name  of  Rizal,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
in  the  sphere  of  intellectual  achievement,  in  scientific 
progress  and  invention,  in  literature  and  philosophy,  and 
also  in  art,  the  Filipino  people  have  accomplished  little. 


PEOPLE  271 

As  to  moral  characteristics,  these  people  have  the 
defects  of  most  orientals,  and  hence  it  would  be  mifair 
to  judge  them  too  harshly.  In  regard  to  truth  and 
honesty,  they  are  at  worst  not  inferior  to  the  average 
Asiatic,  though  considerably  below  the  New  England 
standard.  Some  fall  below  the  common  moral  level  of 
the  inhabitants,  while  others  again  are  models  of  civil 
and  Christian  virtues.  According  to  their  lights  they 
are  moral.  Sexual  morality  to  a  fairly  high  degree 
prevails,  and  temperance  in  its  different  forms  is  a  trait. 
The  marriage  relation,  though  void  of  formalities,  is 
nevertheless  binding  ;  polygamy  does  not  exist.  They 
are  one  and  all  childishly  simple  even  to  the  point 
of  irresponsibility  at  times,  and  hence  in  many  cases 
the  test  which  we  apply  must  be  correspondingly  mild. 

The  Filipinos  whom  American  government  officials 
meet  in  Manila  and  in  the  important  towns  of  the 
provinces  belong  largely  to  the  Mestizo  class,  which 
constitutes  an  important  part  of  the  population  and 
would  under  any  form  of  an  independent  Philippine 
government  be  the  ruling  one.  The  great  mass  of  peo- 
ple do  not  take  much  interest  in  public  affairs ;  they 
are  like  the  peasant  classes  of  all  oriental  countries, 
—  simple,  very  mercurial  of  temperament,  easily  led  by 
those  in  whom  they  have  confidence  and  by  their  super- 
stitions. Tt  is  to  Spain's  hoiior  that  she  drew  no  color 
line  and  treated  the  rank  and  file  with  a  certain  degree 
of  easy  condescension  and  tolerant  familiarity.  Such 
training  as  they  received  from  the  church  inculcated 


272  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

negation  of  initiative,  passive  obedience,  uniformit}^  of 
opinions  and  ideas,  —  in  short  everything  that  might 
serve  to  rob  them  of  their  individuality.  The  church 
authorities  described  FiHpino  character  as  naturally 
indolent  and  apathetic,  but  mention  also  a  certain 
inconsistency  and  volubility  of  this  character  due  to 
"the  tropical  climate,  the  exuberant  vegetation,  and 
the  imposing  manifestations  of  the  phenomena  of  nature 
in  these  regions." 

Of  their  conservatism  we  have  already  spoken  ;  they 
want  to  do  as  they  have  already  done.  The  restlessness 
to  be  noted  at  the  present  time  in  the  people  is  due  in 
part  to  the  constant  changes  of  government  which  have 
taken  place  during  the  last  five  or  six  years,  —  a  reign 
of  American  military  law  pure  and  simple,  following 
the  unsuccessful  attempts  to  establish  a  Philippine  rule  ; 
then  in  turn  two  civil  experiments  under  military  aus- 
pices, which  amounted  to  little  because  of  the  treachery 
and  untrustworthiness  of  the  native  civil  officials,  who 
were  really  allies  and  spies  of  the  insurgents  in  arms, 
many  of  them  being  members  of  the  Katipunan,  a 
society  which  aims  to  expel  all  foreigners  from  the 
Philippines ;  and  finally,  an  established  civil  govern- 
ment. Even  now  there  is  constant  change  in  legislative 
officials,  whereas  in  view  of  this  markedly  conservative 
trait  of  the  Filipino  people,  stability  of  government 
should  characterize  our  efforts. 

Our  view  of  the  history  of  the  Islands  has  shown  us 
that  quarrels  among  the  people  themselves  or  jjetween 


PEOPLE  273 

the  tribes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Moro  invasions, 
have  been  notably  lacking;  when  undisturbed  by  for- 
eign interference  they  have  remained  as  a  whole  peace- 
ful. There  has,  however,  always  been  a  brigand  or 
ladrone  class ;  and  had  Aguinaldo  established  a  govern- 
ment under  our  protection,  he  would  have  had  this 
brigandage  to  wipe  out,  though  his  efforts  might  have 
been  attended  with  earlier  success  than  ours. 

The  soldier's  opinion  of  the  Filipino  has  been  almost 
always  diametrically  opposed  to  that  of  the  civilian ; 
both  are  founded  equally  on  experience,  but  the  experi- 
ences have  been  different.  As  one  commanding  officer^ 
said,  ""  No  adversary  has  a  pleasant  aspect,  and  our 
soldiers  who  are  fighting  the  native  have  no  use  for 
him."  He  immediately  followed  this,  however,  by  the 
statement :  "  But  when  the  social  machine  is  again 
organized,  and  the  asperities  of  conflict  are  forgotten, 
the  admirable  and  sweet  traits  of  the  Filipino  will 
emerge.  Of  course  his  character  is  not  rugged ;  but, 
I  repeat,  it  is  lovable." 

Speaking  as  a  civilian  official,  the  writer  found  the 
educational  work  among  them  constantly  interesting 
and  fascinating;  and  the  Filipinos  whom  he  met  in 
his  office  and  in  the  country  districts  were  polite  and 
easy  in  their  manners,  somewhat  reserved  on  first 
acquaintance,  although  never  cringing,  fluent  talkers, 
ready  with  promises  of  cooperation,  and  in  fact  gentle- 
men.   Teachers  and  superintendents  who  lived  in  the 

1  (General  MacArthur. 


274  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

towns  with  these  same  genial  natives  reported  that  very 
few  of  them  showed  executive  abihty,  and  some  were 
obstinately  inefficient  and  inactive.  When  requested  to 
make  repairs  on  school  buildings  or  to  get  school  furni- 
ture, municipal  officials  are  very  ready  with  promises ; 
but  as  has  been  well  said,  the  Filipino  never  says 
no  but  never  does  yes.  When  asked  for  information, 
he  studies  you  and  is  inclined  to  give  the  answer  that 
he  thinks  you  desire. 

Americans  are  too  wilhng  to  assert,  without  giving 
the  matter  sufficient  thought,  that  Filipino  indirectness, 
the  too  frequent  malfeasance  in  office,  and  the  giving 
of  bribes  are  the  bad  results  of  Spanish  domination. 
There  is,  perhaps,  no  doubt  that  bribery  and  corrup- 
tion characterized  the  later  period  of  civil  service  under 
the  Spaniards ;  but  indirectness  is  a  trait  and  the  giv- 
ing of  gifts  by  subjects  to  those  in  authority  a  cus- 
tom common  to  all  eastern  peoples,  just  as  hospitality 
is  a  sacred  duty  to  them  all.  Bribes  and  propitiatory 
offerings  or,  as  the  Spaniards  called  them,  gratifica- 
tions, are  based  on  the  principle  that  there  is  no  use 
in  holding  an  office  unless  it  can  be  turned  to  profit ; 
and  it  is  difficult  for  a  Filipino  to  understand  that 
the  giving  of  presents  to  government  officials  is  not 
quite  proper.  They  are  unable  to  believe  that  simply 
because  a  man  happens  to  be  white  he  has  any  scru- 
ples against  such  a  practice,  and  look  upon  one  who 
refuses  a  consideration  of  this  sort  with  a  measure  of 
contempt. 


PEOPLE  275 

One  is  tempted  to  say  that  there  is  nothing  of  the 
spirit  of  trustworthiness  necessary  for  a  self-governing 
people.  False  ideas  and  ideals  have  been  incorporated 
into  their  character,  and  mutual  respect  and  confidence 
are  lacking,  as  are  also  a  spirit  of  candor  and  the  idea 
of  the  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law.  But,  the 
writer  must  repeat,  the  Filipinos  are  not  to  be  measured 
by  our  standards  of  thought  and  purpose. 

In  economic  affairs  the  woman  averages  rather 
higher  than  the  man.  In  the  Philippines  she  occupies 
a  position  far  better  than  that  held  by  the  women  in 
India  or,  indeed,  in  most  other  countries  of  the  trop- 
ical East,  and  is  certainly  the  helpmate  rather  than  the 
handmaid,  —  an  elevation  that  is  due  largely  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  Among  the  upper  classes 
many  capable  and  energetic  women  are  found,  some  of 
them  ongaged  in  active  business ;  and  before  the  law 
they  all  have  full  property  rights. 

The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Filipino  people  ui 
general  show  signs  of  Spanish  influence ;  and  the  more 
one  studies  them,  —  their  history,  language,  and  char- 
acter, —  the  more  convinced  one  becomes  that  the  Span- 
iards accomplished  a  unique  work  in  redeeming  these 
races  from  barbarism  and  heathenism  and  teaching  them 
the  forms  and  manners  of  civilized  life.^  Although  much 
of  what  has  been  taught  must  be  modified,  yet  because 
of  the  advancement  made  socially  under  their  earlier 
masters  our  work  has  been  made  infinitely  easier. 

1  This  is  not  the  usual  American  opinion. 


276  THE  PHlLlPPmE  ISLANDS 

These  people,  however,  have  retained  to  a  consider- 
able degree  those  local  customs  which  were  consistent 
with  the  new  ideas  imj)lanted  by  their  earlier  teachers ; 
and  to-day  even  the  upper  classes  who  adopted  the 
superficial  habits  of  the  Spaniards  throw  off  many  of 
these  in  the  privacy  of  the  home  and  become  thoroughly 
Filipino  again,  laying  aside  conventionalities  and  con- 
sidering such  things  as  knives  and  forks,  tables  and 
chairs,  and  shoes  and  stockings  as  mere  superfluities. 
As  a  story  in  point,  it  is  related  that  a  certain  American 
official,  who  had  been  attending  a  banquet  which  had 
been  as  well  served  as  far  as  silver,  fine  linen,  and  glass 
were  concerned  as  any  of  our  dinners,  was  obliged  to 
return  to  his  host's  house  for  an  article  he  had  left 
behind ;  and  thereupon  found  the  women  of  the  house- 
hold, who  had  acted  so  gracefully  and  deftly  as  wait- 
resses during  the  meal,  all  squatting  upon  the  beauti- 
fully polished  table  top  eating  with  their  fingers  the 
remnants  of  the  feast.  Formality  was  all  right  for  a 
while,  but  it  proved  too  oppressive  to  observe  it  for  a 
longer  time  than  actual  necessity  seemed  to  require ; 
and  such  is  the  common  conception  as  to  the  necessity 
of  holding  to  conventionalities  of  this  sort. 

To  the  ordinary  observer  the  manners  of  the  upper- 
class  Filipino  surpass  those  of  the  average  American 
to  be  seen  in  the  Philippines  ;  the  uniform  courtesy 
and  the  cordial  hospitality  of  the  former  are  traits  not 
easily  forgotten,  and,  it  must  be  confessed,  stand  out 
in  rather  sharp  contrast  at  times   to  the   brusqueness 


PEOPLE  277 

closely  analogous  to  rudeness  of  various  representatives 
of  our  own  people.  The  critical  European  residents  are 
already  commenting  unfavorably  upon  the  change  in 
manner  of  the  natives  since  the  arrival  of  the  Americans, 
particularly  the  lack  of  deference  on  the  part  of  the 
former  to  white  persons  generally.  Such  a  transforma- 
tion is  undoubtedly  taking  place  gradually,  encouraged 


Going  to  Town 

as  it  is  by  the  more  liberal  American  spirit ;  though  in 
the  provinces  the  native  meeting  a  foreigner  continues 
to  salute  him  courteously.  By  this  time  the  people  have 
learned  that  there  are  Americans  and  Americans,  and 
consequently  are  somewhat  discriminating  in  their  dis- 
play of  hospitality,  though  they  are  none  the  less  ideal 
hosts  to  those  wdiose  acquaintanceship  they  value. 

The  would-be  Filipino  aristocrat,  with  a  super]}  dis- 
dain for  manual  work,  entertains  a  contemptuous  feel- 
ing for  the   American  who  is   engaged  in  such,  who 


278  THE  philippi:n"e  islands 

walks  when  he  might  ride,  or  who  displays  any  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  laboring  man.  A  certain 
carelessness  of  manner  that  we  possess  is  ver}"  often 
misunderstood  by  Filipinos,  even  those  of  the  lower 
classes.  Superficial,  talkative,  and  showy  Americans 
are  most  popular  with  these  people.  Brusqueness  is 
fatal  in  an  official,  and  modesty  and  quiet  force  are 
not  always  understood. 

One  does  not  perceive  in  the  FilijDinos  of  Manila  and 
the  larger  cities  the  happy  carelessness  which  strikes 
the  observer  as  characteristic  of  such  a  closely  allied 
people  as  the  Javanese.  The  ordinar}-  Tagalog  seems 
almost  sullen ;  and  the  tribes  in  general  exhibit  a  cer- 
tain indifference  and  lack  of  emotion  that  hardly  indicate 
an  enthusiastic  nature. 

Bathing  is  a  frequent  practice,  though  nice  discrimi- 
nation is  not  always  exercised  in  the  choice  of  a  place. 
Clothes  are  washed  often, —  many  times,  it  is  true,  in  the 
water  in  which  the  natives  have  bathed;  yet  the  process 
is  cleansing,  and  neatness  of  garb  is  a  noticeable  char- 
acteristic of  all  classes  of  Filipinos. 

Their  dress  is  not  particularly  picturesque  nor  artis- 
tic, and  compares  very  unfavorably  with  that  of  their 
neighbors,  the  Japanese  and  the  Javanese.  The  colors 
are  too  pronounced,  black,  green,  yellow,  and  particu- 
larly red,  being  the  favorites.  For  the  women,  a  gauzy 
waist,  a  handkerchief,  and  a  skirt  with  an  apron  over 
it  are  the  garments  worn  ;  stockings  are  seldom  used, 
heelless  slippers  constituting  the  footwear.     The  men 


PEOPLE  279 

wear  trousers  reaching  to  the  feet  and  a  kind  of  white 
shirt  hanging  loosely  over  them ;  in  general,  they  go 
barefooted.  The  children  frequently  come  to  school 
wearing  nothing  but  a  blouse,  and  sometimes  a  derby 
hat,  often  considered  the  next  necessary  garment  and 
much  prized  by  the  natives.  Shoes  and  such  luxuries 
do  not  constitute  pressing  needs. 

The  houses  are  untidy,  even  dirty;  and  underneath 
these  dwelhngs  are  kept  hens,  horses,  pigs,  and  often- 
times carabaos.  At  their  meals,  ordinarily  of  fish,  rice, 
and  fruit,  the  members  of  the  family  squat  on  the  floor 
and  eat  with  their  fingers  from  a  common  dish.  They 
usually  all  sleep  together  on  the  floor. 

The  framework  of  these  houses  is  usually  constructed 
of  bamboo ;  the  roof  and  walls  are  made  from  leaves  of 
the  nipa  palm ;  and  the  floor  is  of  small  bamboos  split 
and  put  down  with  an  open  space  between  them.  Open- 
ings in  the  walls  provided  with  shutters  of  palm  leaves 
answer  the  purpose  of  windows;  bamboo  ladders  form 
the  means  of  entrance,  for  all  the  houses  are  built  upon 
piles  with  the  object  of  avoiding  deleterious  vapors 
arising  from  the  ground  and  insuring  comfort  during 
the  rainy  season.  Very  often  there  is  but  one  room 
within  —  kitchen,  dining  room,  and  bedroom  combined 
—  for  the  whole  family;  and  there  are  but  few  articles 
of  furniture,  and  ill  kept  at  that.  Although  the  Filipino 
peasant  is  fond  of  his  home,  real  comfort  there  seems 
to  concern  him  but  little.  Of  course  in  a  tropical  cli- 
mate people  live  more  out  of  doors, — they  really  camp 


280 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


out, — and  have  less  desire  for  abundant  furnishings  for 
the  home;  and  jet  meager  as  are  such  in  the  houses, 
there  is  always  to  be  found  a  little  altar  with  images  or 
pictures  of  saints  for  use  in  their  devotions.    In  contrast 

to  the  abodes  of  the  ordinary 
native,  of  which  we  have  just 
been  speaking,  the  houses  of 
the  better  classes  are  of  frame 

D^^^M^^^Mt'         structure,  substantial,  and 
BwTl^^^^^'  much    more    like    our    own. 

They  are  very  open,  the  win- 
dows being  constructed  of 
small  panes  of  shell  sliding 
in  grooves,  and  it  is  possible 
thus  to  open  up  practically 
the  whole  side  of  the  house. 
These  are  often  luxuriously 
fitted  out  with  heavy  polished 
furniture  and  oiled  floors,  and 
kept  in  splendid  condition.  The  home  life,  too,  of  this 
latter  class  is  much  more  according  to  our  own  ideas. 

Among  the  marked  traits  of  these  people  is  their 
delight  in  festivals  or  Jiestas,  and  each  church  holiday, 
birth,  marriage,  or  death  that  occurs  is  made  the  occa- 
sion for  a  celebration  which  lasts  from  one  to  three 
days  with  banqueting,  music,  and  gaming.  All  are 
invited  and  all  accept.  Food  of  every  sort,  including 
the  indispensable  unsalted  boiled  rice,  hams  and  other 
meats,   chicken,   fish   of   various   kinds    in    numberless 


Altar  Piece 

Designed  and  carved  by  a 

Filipino 


PEOPLE 


281 


combinations,  sweets,  and  fruits  are  provided  in  abund- 
ance; wine  and  native  gin  are  not  lacking,  nor  cigars 
and  cigarettes  in  quantities.  The  food  is  served  in 
courses  which  follow  one  another  in  almost  endless  suc- 
cession, and  Americans  who  may  happen  to  be  among 
the  guests  are  compelled  to  cease  early  from  active 
participation  in  the  eating.  The  chief  dish  is  a  pig 
roasted  whole,  and  a  peculiar  mixture  of  fish,  eggs, 
vegetables,  and  sauce  —  one  which  Americans  have  not 
as  yet  become  able  to  relish  —  is  almost  equally  popular. 
Through  numerous  courses,  each  with  its  particular 
merit,  the  guests  are  conducted,  until  finally  something 
like  satisfaction  has  been  attained.  Other  forms  of 
entertainment  are 
then  sought,  perhaps 
card  playing  and 
dancing,  and  so  the 
merriment  c  o  n- 
tinues,  with  further 
eating  as  the  time 
goes  on. 

The  word  fiesta 
originally  meant  a 
saint's  day  and  the 
word  still  retains  its 
religious  significance, 
though  applied  also  to  other  celebrations.  On  the  differ- 
ent church  holidays  everywhere,  as  we  saw  to  be  true 
of  Manila,  these  festivals  take  place, — more  religious  in 


Puxcii  Bowl 
Designed  and  made  by  a  Filipino  silversmith 


282  THE   PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

character  of  course  than  the  ordinary  affairs,  and  gener- 
ally gorgeous  and  extremely  impressive.  On  the  more 
serious  occasions  levity  is  forgotten,  though  the  feasting 
takes  place,  and  a  feeling  of  real  piety  is  shown. 

Another  prominent  trait  of  the  Filipinos  is  their  fond- 
ness for  elaborate  funeral  rites.  Gaudy  trappings  and 
the  pomp  of  woe  are  greatly  in  favor  with  these  people, 
who  like  so  much  anything  in  the  way  of  ceremony. 
They  seem  hardly  to  realize  the  seriousness  of  the  occa- 
sion and,  outside  the  immediate  relatives,  are  apparently 
attracted  more  by  the  interest  of  the  event  itself  than 
by  any  particular  consideration  for  the  deceased ;  while 
the  bands  of  music  accompanying  the  body  are  as  likely 
to  play  lively  two-steps  or  street  songs  as  anything 
appropriate. 

Still  another  side  of  these  people  is  shown  in  their 
intense  interest  in  any  game  which  possesses  the  gam- 
bling element  and  their  general  dislike  for  ordinary  out- 
door sports.  A  native  game  of  football  played  with  a 
wicker  ball  which  is  kicked  from  one  to  another  in 
the  air  is  rather  popular;  and  much  riding  is  done  in 
the  provinces,  though  more  for  business  errands  than 
for  pleasure  and  exercise.  After  all,  cockfighting,  horse 
racing,  and  card  playing,  with  bets  and  money  in  other 
ways  involved,  are  the  chief  delights,  and  oftentimes, 
it  seems,  the  main  interests  of  the  natives.  With  the 
younger  generation,  however,  a  change  is  taking  place, 
and  the  more  vigorous  American  sports  are  beginning 
to  gain  a  popularity  that  promises  to  equal  that  of  the 


PEOPLE  283 

coin  games  which  the  children  play  almost  universally. 
Card  playing  for  money  is  the  national  game  and  has 
such  a  fascination  for  these  people  that  it  nearly  always 
receives  first  consideration.  Even  among  those  of  mod- 
erate means  very  large  sums  at  times  change  hands,  and 
a  spirit  of  recklessness  akin  to  that  of  the  experienced 
gambler  of  the  western  world  is  displayed. 

Among  the  upper-class  women  there  is  a  great  fond- 
ness for  personal  adornment  in  the  shape  of  silk 
brocaded  dresses  with  enormous  trains  and  jewelry, 
especially  diamonds.  These  trains  are  frequently  most 
inartistically  painted,  and  the  display  of  gems  amazing. 
Nor  is  that  distinctively  artistic  touch  given  the  gown 
which  is  the  case,  for  instance,  with  Japanese  women. 

The  amount  of  really  artistic  work  among  these 
people  is  very  limited.  Some  of  the  embroideries  of 
piiia  cloth  are,  however,  exquisitely  done ;  and  in  the 
ornamentation  of  a  few  of  the  churches  there  are  wood 
carvings  of  true  merit.  In  Manila  and  various  parts  of 
the  provinces  this  carving  forms  a  distinct  industry, 
and  in  Laguna  a  product  closely  resembling  Swiss  work 
is  turned  out.  Painting  is  a  comparatively  unknown 
art,  though  very  fair  ability  has  been  shown  in  the  exe- 
cution of  native  landscapes ;  and  at  least  one  artist 
—  Luna^ — has  been  produced,  whose  work  gained  for 
him  admission  to  the  French  Salon.  Some  of  the  work 
in  metals,   particularly  silversmithing,   also  shows  an 

^  Brother  of  General  Luna,  who  was  killed,  as  is  alleged,  by  order  of 
Aguinaldo. 


284  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

originality  in  designing  power  and  an  appreciation  of 
the  princii)les  of  grace  and  proportion. 

In  architecture  little  original  talent  has  been  dis- 
played ;  in  general,  the  jDeople  have  been  satisfied  to 
accept  Spanish  ideas,  which  in  the  Islands  were  influ- 
enced by  considerations  of  convenience  rather  than  of 
artistic  beauty.  The  churches,  however,  which  are  the 
principal  buildings,  are  all  interesting,  and  while  some 
are  plain,  barnlike  structures,  others  are  dignified  and 
well  proportioned,  with  graceful  towers  and  pleasing 
facades.  The  walls  and  gates  of  old  Manila  and  the 
turreted  forts  constructed  by  the  natives  of  Samar, 
different  monuments  in  the  capital,  together  with 
Magellan's  tomb  in  Cebii  harbor,  are  all  interesting 
historically  but  hardly  so  artistically,  at  least  for  us, 
since  the  design  of  these  works  is  not  native  but 
Spanish;  the  same  may  be  said  with  regard  to  the 
statue  of  Sebastian  del  Cano  in  the  Ayuntamiento  and 
the  Legaspi-Urdaneta  monument  facing  the  Luneta, 
both  of  which  are  splendidly  executed. 

Music,  though  not  an  art  among  these  people,  forms 
a  part  of  their  very  life.  Little  native  music  has  been 
written,  and  there  is  no  composer  who  stands  forth  as 
does  Rizal  the  writer,  or  even  Luna  the  artist  ;  yet  one 
hears  the  wilder,  more  racy  strains  of  native  composi- 
tion and  the  livelier  foreign  airs  everywhere  and  at  all 
times.  During  festivals,  on  the  one  hand,  and  labor, 
on  the  other,  the  sound  of  violin  or  native  instrument 
is  constantly  heard,  often  accompanied  by  the  peculiar 


PEOPLE  285 

native  singing  which  is  at  times  so  mournful.  Every 
town  has  its  musical  organization,  and  some  of  the 
musicians  perform  very  creditably, — indeed,  the  Rizal 
Orchestra  is  as  fine  as  anything  to  be  found  in  the 
Far  East.  The  children  take  deep  interest  in  this  branch 
of  school  work;  and  the  teachers  find  that  the  pupils 
pick  up  an  air  readily  and  memorize  the  words  with 
accuracy  and  faithfulness. 

And  such  are  these  people, — childlike,  curious,  pleas- 
ure-loving, immature,  strange,  unfathomable,  elusive, — 
a  study  for  us,  their  tutors. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PEOPLE  {continued) 

The  character  and  pohtical  capacity  of  the  Filipinos 
have  such  a  direct  bearing  upon  their  government  and 
administration  that  the  writer  is  loath  to  leave  the 
subject  before  presenting  in  addition  to  his  own  views 
the  opinions  of  certain  persons  who  have  had  such 
experience  with  these  people  as  to  make  their  obser- 
vations valuable. 

General  Otis  was  particularly  qualified  to  speak  upon 
the  question,  arriving,  as  he  did,  a  short  week  after 
the  taking  of  Manila  and  acting  as  military  governor 
until  May,  1900.  In  giving  testimony  before  the  United 
States  Senate  Committee  as  to  the  character  of  the  bulk 
of  the  people,  he  informed  his  hearers  that  there  is 
everything  in  the  Philippines  from  a  high  state  of  civil- 
ization to  the  most  degraded  barbarism.  The  great  mass 
of  the  people,  in  his  estimation,  are  ignorant  and  very 
superstitious ;  they  prefer  to  remain  at  home  quietly  and 
till  the  soil,  free  from  outside  interruption.  In  their 
public  conduct  they  depend  largely  upon  the  attitudes 
and  desires  of  their  leaders;  and  the  general  run  of 
them,  after  the  Spanish  domination  of  three  or  four 
centuries  which  developed  the  practice  of  secrecy  among 

286 


PEOPLE  287 

them,  are  hardly  capable  of  being  trusted  implicitly. 
He  agreed  with  the  testimony  that  had  been  gathered 
from  former  witnesses  before  the  committee  respecting 
Filipino  habits,  that  these  people  would  sooner  play 
than  work ;  that  they  go  off  to  dances,  festivities,  and 
cockfights,  and  abandon  their  work;  and  if  they  get  a 
little  money  by  winning  on  a  favorite  bird  their  absence 
becomes  extended.  He  added  that  almost  every  other 
day  with  tliem  is  a  holiday,  and  that  he  had  a  great 
deal  of  difficulty  on  this  account,  even  around  Manila,  in 
keeping  them  at  work.  A  good  strong  white  man  will 
do  as  much  in  one  day  as  three  Filipinos,  he  believed, 
and  although  there  were  many  good  laborers  among 
them,  the  average  native  was  of  about  this  quality. 
They  were  found  to  work  well  in  the  early  part  of 
the  morning,  but  wdien  noon  approached  siestas  of  one, 
two,  or  three  hours  were  necessary  before  the  resump- 
tion of  labor  in  the  afternoon.  As  to  the  development 
of  the  Islands  in  any  rapid  way,  he  was  convinced  that 
it  would  have  to  be  done  by  means  of  labor  secured 
outside  of  the  Philippines,  preferably  by  the  restricted 
immigration  of  Chinese. 

General  MacArthur,  who  succeeded  General  Otis,  said 
of  these  people  which  he  had  helped  to  subdue  : 

I  do  not  know  where  they  got  it,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  the  Fili- 
pinos alone  in  the  Far  East  have  somehow  been  imbued  with  the 
nineteenth-century  spirit.  They  have  ideals.  Their  evolution 
will  be  so  swift  it  will  surprise  us,  and  I  am  sure  they  will 
become  thoroughly  Americanized  and  an  addition  to  the  United 
States  to  be  proud  of.    If  we  ever  have  a  war  in  the  East  they 


288  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

will  fight  for  us.    Of  all  the  Eastern  colonial  soldiers  they  are 
the  best  stuff. 

In  answer  to  an  inquiry  as  to  whether  the  Filipinos 
wonlcl  be  content  nnder  American  sovereignty,  he  said  : 

They  have  not  longed  for  independence,  for  they  are  not  a 
nationality  nor  homogeneous.  What  they  have  been  striving  for 
these  years  is  personal  liberty.  Now  they  have  come  in  contact 
with  an  Anglo-Saxon  people,  and  personal  liberty  is  what  Anglo- 
Saxons  have  fought  for  during  the  last  five  hundred  years.  They 
are  learning  that.  They  are  already  experiencing  personal  liberty 
under  Anglo-Saxon  protection.  ...  I  predict  the  time  will  come 
speedily  when  these  Filipinos  and  ourselves  will  admire  each 
other  and  affection  will  exist  between  us. 

Governor  Taft,  Avho  from  the  responsibilities  and 
anxieties  of  his  position  should  be  a  pessimist  of  the 
pessimists,  is  an  extreme  optimist.  His  views  as  to 
these  people  and  their  possibilities  are  better  known, 
and  yet  the  following  quotations  from  speeches  deliv- 
ered during  a  recent  visit  to  the  United  States  while  he 
was  still  governor  of  the  Islands  are  hardly  superfluous: 

They  are  a  courteous,  hospitable,  and  in  many  respects  a 
lovable  people.  They  are  not  a  licentious  people,  but  they  do 
not  regard  the  marriage  tie  as  essential  to  the  decent  living 
together  of  a  man  and  a  woman.  Under  the  influences  of  the 
tropical  sun  they  are  not  an  energetic  or  industrious  people, 
though  I  believe  that  organization  can  accomplish  much  in 
making  them  a  much  more  useful  people  for  purposes  of 
labor  than  under  the  recently  unsettled  conditions  tliey  have 
proved  themselves  to  be.  With  the  war  passion  they  have 
developed  cruelty,  but  in  peaceful  times  they  are  a  sweet- 
tempered  people,  decorous  in  their  conduct.  Their  chief  vice 
is  that  of  gambling.     They  are  a  very  temperate   peo})le,  and 


PEOPLE  289 

one  rarely  sees  a  drunken  Filipino,  although  I  think  they  all 
take  more  or  less  vino,  the  distillation  of  the  sap  of  the  nipa 
palm.  Among  the  ignorant  ninety  per  cent  there  is  very  little 
political  sentiment  of  any  kind,  except  the  desire  for  quiet,  for 
protection  from  ladroues  or  other  disturbers  of  the  peace,  and 
the  feeling  of  deep  hostility  against  the  friars  who  represented 
to  them  the  political  condition  of  subjection  under  the  Spanish 
rule  and  all  its  severity.  Political  conception,  until  the  system 
of  education  shall  have  brought  this  ninety  per  cent  into  sym- 
pathy with  modern  ideas  by  giving  them  a  common  language, 
must  be  generally  confined  to  less  than  ten  per  cent  who  speak 
Spanish,  and  the  discussion  of  political  parties  must  be  limited 
to  that  ten  per  cent. 

As  to  the  political  responsibility  of  the  people  and  their 
ideas  of  popular  government,  the  governor  proceeded : 

There  are  some  of  the  Filipinos  who  have  given  a  good  deal 
of  study  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States ;  they  are 
to  be  found  chiefly  among  the  Federal  party  leaders,  and  possi- 
bly there  should  be  included  among  them  a  few  of  the  revolu- 
tionary leaders  and  irreconcilables.  Their  whole  education  has 
been  in  the  civil  law  and  in  the  conceptions  of  civil  government 
and  of  liberty  which  prevail  in  France  and  among  the  so-called 
republicans  or  social  democrats  of  other  European  countries. 
They  have  very  little  practical  conception  of  individual  liberty 
as  it  has  been  hammered  out  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries  by  hun- 
dreds of  years  of  conflict.  In  spite  of  eloquent  tributes  to  liberty 
and  freedom  even  the  most  advanced  and  practical  of  the  Fili- 
pino party  leaders  find  it  difficult  to  regard  with  favor  limita- 
tions of  the  executive  in  favor  of  the  liberty  of  the  individual, 
when  the  right  man  is  in  the  executive.  The  tendency  among 
them  is  always  toward  absolutism  in  the  president  of  the  town, 
in  the  governor  of  the  province,  and  in  the  representative  of  the 
central  government. 

It  is  most  difficult  for  them  to  conceive  of  a  ruling  majority 
sharing  equal  rights  with  the  minority.     On  the  other  hand,  the 


290  IHE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

minority  are,  as  President  Wheeler  aptly  expressed  it  in  remarks 
made  by  him  in  San  Francisco  some  time  since,  "  bad  losers,"  and 
the  defeat  in  an  election  is  only  a  preliminary  to  violence  and 
revolution.  It  is  the  idea  of  practical  individual  liberty  which 
the  Filipinos  are  to  learn,  —  the  practical  elements  of  popular 
government. 

We  know  of  the  massacre  of  our  troops  at  Balangiga 
on  the  island  of  Sumar  and  of  General  Smith's  campaign 
there  in  which  he  was  reported  to  have  urged  his  soldiers 
to  make  the  island  a  howling  wilderness.  Although  the 
inhabitants  there  are  Visayans,  they  are  of  a  lower  stage 
of  civilization  than  the  other  members  of  this  family  in 
Panay,  Negros,  and  the  other  central  islands ;  and  they 
are  so  different  in  character  from  these  others  that  one 
might  have  experiences  among  them  which  would  not 
apply  to  any  of  the  other  peoples  of  this  same  race. 
This  is  only  a  single  instance  which  might  be  multi- 
plied almost  without  limit,  indicating  that  local  condi- 
tions are  the  cause  of  striking  differences  among  these 
people,  even  though  they  may  be  members  of  the  one 
common  Ijranch.  A  soldier's  or  a  teacher's  letter  may 
represent  actual  experience  and  be  a  true  statement  of 
local  conditions  and  yet  not  apply  at  all  to  the  people 
in  the  archipelago  as  a  whole.  And  those  who  labeled 
all  the  Filipinos  as  "cruel  traitors"  on  account  of  this 
barbarous  massacre  in  S^imar  are  just  as  much  in  tlie 
wrong  as  those  who  harshly  condemned  General  Smith 
without  understanding  that  conditions  on  that  island 
warranted  drastic  military  methods.  This  event  served 
only  to  emphasize  the  difficulty  of  knowing  the  people 


PEOPLE  291 

generally  and  the  mistake  of  assuming  that  some  are 
just  like  others.  Before  the  loss  of  our  troops  occurred 
at  Balangiga,  the  people  had  been  reported  as  having 
their  hearts  and  minds  wholly  wrapped  up  in  insurrec- 
tion and  barbarism.  Enlightenment  had  no  place  among 
them ;  and  they  were  said  to  be  so  corrupt  morally  and 
cruel  naturally  that  it  would  be  far  from  advisable  to 
send  teachers  to  help  such  an  unappreciative  people, 
who  had  all  the  cunning  of  a  traitorous  tribe.  How 
true  this  estimate  of  these  people  became  was  revealed  by 
the  events  which  followed.  General  Hughes,  in  assign- 
ing an  othcer  to  that  station,  gave  him  a  full  account 
of  the  character  of  the  people  among  whom  he  was 
to  start  operations ;  the  fact  developed  later  that  this 
officer  heeded  but  slightly  the  information  which  he 
had  received,  owing  to  an  unusual  confidence  which 
he  had  previously  learned  to  place  in  the  natives  in 
Luzon;  and  the  trust  which  he  placed  in  these  new 
people  was  what  made  their  treachery  possible. 

This  same  General  Hughes,  a  shrewd,  lovable  gentle- 
man as  well  as  an  excellent  soldier  and  a  practical 
administrator,  in  stating  his  opinion  of  the  character  of 
the  Visayan  people,  the  largest  tribe,  as  we  have  seen, 
in  the  archipelago  and  the  ones  whom  he  learned  to 
know  so  well,  said  : 

The  Visayan  people  are  not  understood,  and  I  do  not  pre- 
tend to  understand  them  after  living  with  them  for  two  and  a 
half  years.  There  is  a  small  percentage,  and  it  is  a  very  small 
percentage,  of  educated,  fine  people.    In  the  towns,  where  these 


292  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

people  are,  there  is  another  percentage,  much  larger,  of  people 
■R-ho  have  learned  enough  of  good  manners  and  good  behavior 
to  appear  very  well  and  to  behave  very  well  ;  but  the  great  mass 
of  the  Visayan  people  to-day  are  absolutely  ignorant.  They  have 
the  general  reputation  of  being  a  very  gentle  and  pleasing  people. 
That  is  certainly  true ;  but  I  think  that  that  is  simply  the  pas- 
sivity of  indifference  and  ignorance.  There  is  nothing  that 
interests  them.  They  will  not  be  disturbed  by  anything  that 
goes  on  around  them.  .  .  .  These  people  do  not  know  what  inde- 
pendence means.  They  probably  think  that  it  is  something  to 
eat.  .  .  .  They  want  us  driven  out  so  they  can  have  this  inde- 
pendence, but  they  do  not  know  what  it  is. 

Of  the  Filipinos  in  general  he  said  : 

They  are  lazy.  They  want  at  least  three  days  in  the  week,  if 
you  will  give  it  to  them  ;  they  want  to  go  to  cockfights  and  they 
want  to  gamble.  As  laborers  they  cannot  do  any  heavy  work. 
They  are  weak  when  it  comes  to  lifting.  It  would  take  a  long 
time  to  develop  the  Filipinos  for  the  heavy  work  and  the  finer 
part  of  the  skilled  work.  As  the  old  Chinaman  who  used  to 
come  around  to  repair  things  in  my  house  remarked,  "  No  good, 
no  good  ;  Filipino  man  made  it." 

A  native  physician  who  has  always  lived  in  Manila 
said  of  his  people  before  the  first  Philippine  Commission  : 

Ordinarily,  the  native  Filipino,  because  he  has  been  under  the 
influence  of  the  friar  for  a  long  time,  is  stoical.  .  .  .  They  are 
fond  of  work  up  to  a  certain  point.  They  will  Avork  as  long  as 
it  is  necessary  to  gain  a  livelihood.  They  have  not  yet  learned 
to  save  what  they  earn  by  their  work,  for  they  have  always  been 
obliged  whenever  they  had  any  money  to  give  it  to  the  church, 
and  in  this  way  they  have  become  indifferent  to  saving. 

The  imagination  of  the  Indian,  when  he  talks  in  his  own  lan- 
guage, may  be  easily  seen  to  be  very  active  and  easily  aroused, 
considering  the  small  amount  of  education  which  he  has  had. 


PEOPLE  293 

On  account  of  the  education  and  fanaticism  which  they  have 
received  they  regard  life  as  a  transitory  state,  and  they  are  indif- 
ferent to  death.  It  is  not  that  they  are  brave  but  that  they  think 
that  in  the  next  world  they  will  enjoy  a  better  life  than  here. 

These  Filipinos  stand  unique  as  the  only  large  body 
of  Asiatics  converted  to  Christianity  in  modern  times, 
and  yet  this  common  religion  has  not  been  sufficient 
to  efface  tribal  differences  and  make  them  one  people. 
The  Spaniards  were  the  first  and  only  nation  to  Chris- 
tianize a  large  group  of  tropical  orientals  ;  and  let  us 
hope  the  Americans  may  be  the  first  to  assist  in  their 
development  into  a  self-governing  people.  Certain  Eng- 
glishmen  who  have  been  for  a  long  time  residents  in  the 
Malay  states  take  the  position  that  brown  races,  like 
the  Malays,  are  unfit  for  self-government ;  that  the  in- 
variable results  of  such  a  rule  are  misery,  wrongdoing, 
and  retrogression  ;  and  that  such  people  can  secure  hap- 
piness, progress,  and  welfare  only  by  remaining  subject 
races  under  white  rulers. 

As  one  wrote  concerning  the  Filipinos : 

They  have  no  unity,  no  patriotism,  and  no  common  tie  to  bind 
and  qualify  them  to  be  a  self-ruling  people.  Their  only  destiny 
in  short  is  to  be  left  under  the  tutelage  and  guardianship  of  the 
superior  race  which  now  holds  the  Islands.^ 

And  another  ^vrites : 

There  never  has  been  and  there  never  will  be  within  any  time 
with  which  we  are  practically  concerned  such  a  thing  as  good 
government,  in  the  European  sense,  of  the  tropics  by  the  natives 
of  these  regions.  .  .  .     However  we  may  be  inclined  to  hesitate 

1  Clifford,  Blackwood''s  Magazine. 


294  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

before  reaching  this  view,  it  is  hard  to  see  how  assent  to  it  can 
be  withhekl  in  the  face  of  the  consistent  verdict  of  history  in  the 
past  and  the  unvarying  support  given  to  it  by  facts  in  the  present.^ 

Still  another,  a  keen  observer  of  eastern  peoples,  says  : 

Those  who  liave  been  intimately  connected  with  tlie  Malays 
have  to  a  great  extent  fallen  under  the  spell  of  a  certain  charm 
in  their  character.  They  speak  with  enthusiasm  of  their  bright- 
ness and  hospitality,  of  a  certain  tenderness  of  heart,  and  many 
other  traits  which  make  them  pleasant  comrades.  They  are  said 
to  be  easy  to  rule  so  long  as  they  recognize  their  master ;  to  be 
brave  and  reckless  though  superstitious.  But  their  most  ardent 
admirers,  men  like  Swettenham  and  Clifford,'^  are  the  first  to 
allow  that,  whether  physically  or  morally,  they  degenerate  when 
brought  under  the  influence  of  western  civilization,  and  fail  to 
acquire  other  traits  which  require  the  exercise  of  reason  and 
discipline.  Another  deficiency  in  their  mental  and  moral  equip- 
ment is  a  lack  of  organizing  power.  .  .  .  The  Malay  is  always  a 
provincial ;  moreover,  he  rarely  rises  outside  the  interests  of  his 
own  town  or  village.  .  .  .  The  Malay  is  the  laziest  of  orientals 
and  the  Filipino  is  not  the  least  lazy  of  Malays.  The  Malay,  in 
short,  is  a  creature  of  limitations.^ 

On  this  Malayan  stock,  furthermore,  have  been 
grafted  many  shoots,  the  principal  ones  being  Spanish 
and  Chinese,  giving,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  Mestizo 
class,  an  important  one  in  the  Islands.  The  natives  of 
Chinese  mixture  have  the  reputation  of  being  among 
the  keenest  and  shrewdest  of  the  population ;  as  a  result 
of  the  Spanish  intermarriage,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
shortcomings  and  peculiarities  of  the  Latin  peoples  have 
become  exaggerated  in  the  offspring,  and  a  thin  veneer 

1  Kidd,  Control  of  the  Tropics. 

2  Swettenham,  Malay  Sketches ;  The  Heal  Malay ;  Unaddressed  Letters. 
Clifford,  Studies  in  Broion  Humanity ;  In  Court  and  Kampong. 

3  Colquhoun,  Mastery  of  the  Pacific. 


PEOPLE  295 

of  western  culture  has  been  spread  over  the  passions 
and  emotions  of  these  orientals. 

The  foregoing  are  some  of  the  various  estimates  of  the 
peoples  of  whom  we  have  assumed  charge,  —  estimates 
which  are  undoubtedly  based  upon  careful,  fair-minded 
observation,  and  which,  it  may  be  admitted,  are  rather 
discouraging  to  those  of  us  who  would  see  our  desire 
to  fit  these  natives  for  self-government  realized  in  a 
day.  Any  who  are  in  fact  cherishing  such  expectations 
cannot  be  otherwise  than  discouraged,  and  satisfaction 
with  the  results  that  are  being  accomplished  can  only  be 
attained  by  remembering  just  what  the  material  is  upon 
which  we  are  working,  and  adopting  a  more  patient 
attitude  in  looking  for  results.  The  thoughtful  Amer- 
ican official  in  the  Philippines,  if  asked  his  opinion  as 
to  the  outcome  of  our  efforts  in  the  Islands,  would  be 
inclined  to  say  that  he  could  do  no  more  than  hope  that 
the  Filipinos  might,  though  slowly,  develop  for  them- 
selves an  efficient  government  under  which  they  could 
become  an  independent  nation  in  accordance  with  their 
acknowledged  ideal  3  and  such  would  be  the  happiest 
solution  for  our  own  country  of  the  very  difficult  prob- 
lem, not  to  mention  the  confidence  it  would  create  in 
the  latent  possibilities  of  tropical  oriental  nations  gener- 
ally. Enough  evidence  has  it  seems  already  been  brought 
forward  to  show  that  a  solution  is  still  not  entirely 
beyond  the  bounds  of  hope  ;  and  from  a  first-hand 
acquaintance  with  these  natives  the  writer  is  willing  to 
assert  the  belief  that  they  will  develop  for  themselves 
an  efficient  government  ultimately. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SUPERSTITIONS   AND   RELIGION 

In  large  part  the  inhabitants  of  the  Phihppines  are 
Roman  Catholics,  thongh  the  Negritos,  Igorots,  and 
other  interior  wild  tribes  are  pagans,  while  the  people 
of  Mindanao  and  the  Suln  archipelago  are  Mohamme- 
dans. The  beliefs  of  those  who  have  become  converted 
to  Christianity  are,  as  we  should  expect,  considerably 
modified,  yet  certain  of  the  ancestral  ideas  remain  ;  and 
the  religions  views  of  the  pagan  and  Mohammedan 
tribes  comprise  a  maze  of  superstition,  nature  worship, 
and  tradition. 

The  Negritos  display  very  few  signs  of  possessing  a 
real  religion,  and  merely  observe  certain  principles  in- 
dicative of  a  belief  in  spirits,  which  is  further  attested 
by  the  great  reverence  shown  for  their  dead  and  by 
their  custom  of  inclosing  the  burial  places  and  guard- 
ing; them  from  tlie  desecration  of  neighboring  tribes. 
Ancestral  worship  is  a  part  of  their  creed  ;  and  natural 
things,  —  plants  and  animals, — as  the  embodiment  of 
different  spirits,  are  objects  of  devotion  among  them. 
To  their  children  they  give  the  name  of  the  plant  near 
which  they  are  born,  or  that  of  some  bird  or  snake. 

The  most  solemn  functi(ni  is  the  burial  of  their  dead, 
and    yet    this    occasion    is    mixed    with    feasting    and 

296 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND   RELIGION  297 

drinking.  When  a  death  occurs  notice  is  sent  out  and 
tho.se  in  the  neighborhood  gather  round,  bringing  with 
thein  the  game  which  they  have  killed  on  the  road. 
The  corpse  is  prepared  for  burial  by  enveloping  it  in  the 
thick  bark  of  a  certain  tree,  taken  off  entire,  and  filling 
the  ends  of  this  cylindrical  case  with  a  mixture  of  earth 
and  resinous  gum,  by  which  means  the  body  becomes 
hermetically  sealed.  It  is  then  left  unburied  for  many 
days,  during  which  time  a  feast  with  more  or  less 
riotousness  is  held.  All  the  food  and  drink  consumed, 
they  then  proceed  to  complete  the  burial  ceremony.  A 
vertical  ditch  is  dug  underneath  the  house  of  the  de- 
ceased, and  the  body  lowered  into  it  feet  foremost  so 
that  it  remains  in  a  standing  posture ;  the  grave  is 
then  covered  with  earth  and  the  house  burned  over  it. 
This  marks  the  end  of  the  event,  and  the  tribe  members 
disperse,  feeling  that  their  duty  to  the  dead  has  been 
performed. 

Marriage  celebrations  and  religious  dances  among 
these  people  are  full  of  ceremony,  which  is  followed 
to-day  just  as  in  the  days  of  their  aboriginal  ancestors. 
They  all  live  close  to  nature  and  contemplate  its  forces 
with  reverence. 

The  Igorots  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being,  the  creator 
and  preserver,  known  to  most  of  them  as  Apo.  He  has 
a  wife,  a  daughter,  and  a  son ;  and  besides  these  there 
are  two  inferior  gods  who  hold  intercourse  with  man- 
kind through  the  anitos,  or  ancestral  spirits,  some  good, 
others  evil,  who  reward  or  chastise  the  people  in  this 


298  THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

life  according  to  their  deserts.  These  spirits  are  repre- 
sented by  roughly  carved  idols  of  wood,  and  their  good 
will  is  invoked  by  family  prayer.  Tlie  ancestral  spirits 
are  the  objects  of  greater  veneration  than  tlie  gods, 
however,  and  for  fear  of  incurring  their  ill  will  poultry, 
swine,  and  dogs  may  not  be  slaughtered  except  in  a 
sacrificial  manner.  There  is  a  priest  in  every  village 
who  first  consecrates  the  animal  to  the  anitos  and  then 
kills  it  and  returns  it  to  the  owner,  reserving,  how- 
ever, the  choicest  piece  for  himself.  In  company  with 
his  first-born  son  he  takes  the  lead  at  prayer  meetings 
or  on  special  occasions  such  as  illness,  marriage,  the 
beginning  of  an  important  work,  or  the  averting  of 
some  threatening  evil. 

Near  each  village  is  a  sacred  tree  regarded  as  the 
abode  of  the  anitos ;  and  outside  the  different  houses 
are  placed  small  benches  with  rice  or  other  food  for 
their  refreshment. 

According  to  the  Igorots'  belief  there  are  two  places 
where  the  souls  of  the  dead  go, — one  an  agreeable  resi- 
dence provided  with  everything  necessary  to  happiness, 
and  the  home  of  the  spirits  who  have  died  a  natural 
death  ;  the  other  a  place  of  chastisement  for  those 
who  have  been  evil  doers  and  escaped  due  punishment 
on  earth. 

Turning  now  to  certain  other  primitive  tribes  of  a 
very  low  grade  of  culture,  of  Negrito  mixture,  we 
find  religious  conceptions  of  even  a  more  elementary 
nature.    The  Manguianes,  or  forest  people,  of  Mindoro, 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND  RELIGION  299 

for  instance,  have  denied  any  belief  in  a  future  life  and 
were  found  to  have  no  word  for  any  idea  of  a  God. 
No  evidence  either  of  idolatry,  spirit  worship,  or  any 
other  sort  of  worship  has  been  found  among  them. 

The  Tagbanuas,  literally  the  original  inhabitants,  of 
Palawan,  a  Malay  people  with  some  Negrito  blood, 
show  their  common  origin  with  the  Negritos  by  their 
manner  of  burying  their  dead.  The  body  is  incased  in 
a  bamboo  cottin  and  then  placed  in  a  grave  which  the 
departed  one  himself  has  selected.  With  him  are  buried 
his  arms  and  utensils  and  a  liberal  ration  of  cooked 
rice  and  condiments  for  his  journey  to  the  other  world, 
— a  practice  similar  to  the  one  followed  by  the  Chinese 
and  our  American  Indians ;  and  around  the  grave  is 
built  a  strong  wooden  fence.  Sometimes  also  dishes  and 
pots,  after  being  broken,  are  used  to  mark  the  place ; 
and  as  with  the  Negritos,  feasting  and  drinking  accom- 
pany the  exercises. 

Similarly  also  to  the  American  Indians,  these  people 
have  medicine  men,  half  priest  and  half  doctor.  They 
believe  there  are  two  gods,  —  one  in  heaven  (the  sky) 
and  the  other  beneath  the  ground.  The  former  receives 
and  cares  for  the  souls  of  the  pure  and  good,  and 
the  latter  is  his  delegate  and  is  charged  with  puri- 
fying the  souls  of  the  wicked  on  earth.  When  a  man 
dies  he  enters  a  cave  that  leads  into  the  depths  of  the 
earth,  and  after  traveling  a  long  distance  he  arrives  in 
a  chamber  where  sits  a  judge, — a  giant,  who  stirs  the 
eternal  fire.    The  monster  asks  the  newcomer  whether 


300  THE  PHlLIPPmE  ISLANDS 

lie  has  been  good  or  bad  in  the  world  overhead ;  if  bad, 
he  is  cast  into  a  dark  and  thorny  place ;  but  if,  on  the 
contrary,  he  has  been  good,  he  is  permitted  to  j^i'esent 
himself  before  the  second  judge,  who  may  grant  him  en- 
trance into  paradise,  where  there  are  beautiful  houses  sur- 
rounded by  gardens,  in  which  are  the  fathers,  wives,  and 
relatives  of  the  deceased,  together  with  other  good  souls. 

The  Bataks,  another  of  the  various  non-Christian 
tribes,  have  a  religion  made  up  largely  of  superstition; 
they  worship  animals,  particularly  singing  birds.  The 
Tinguianes  believe  in  the  existence  of  the  soul,  which 
leaves  the  body  after  death  Init  remains  in  the  family. 
They  venerate  anything  strange,  such  as  rocks  or  trees 
having  an  unnatural  appearance. 

Scattered  over  the  archipelago  are  a  few  remnants  of 
a  Malayan  population  more  primitive  than  the  present 
Christian  Filipinos,  and  these  in  general  have  few  if 
any  religious  beliefs,  or  else  very  gross  ones.  They  are 
without  exception  filled  with  superstition,  and,  as  is 
the  case  with  all  these  pagan  tribes  and  oriental  people 
generally,  ancestor  worship  is  very  common.  Their  reli- 
gion is  somewhat  similar  in  conception  to  that  of  the 
Igorots  ;  there  is  a  chief  god,  the  Supreme  Being,  who 
sometimes  has  a  wife  and  one  or  more  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, and  a  similar  idea  prevails  as  to  the  reward  await- 
ing those  who  have  done  good  and  the  punishment  for 
those  who  have  committed  evil. 

The  Monteses,  or  hillmen,  of  Mindanao  tell  of  a  tree 
that  folds  its  limbs  around  the  trunk  of  another  and 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND   RELIGION  301 

hugs  it  to  death;  and  the  tree  thus  killed  rots  and 
leaves  a  tube  of  tightly  laced  l^ranches  in  which  are 
creatures  that  bleed  through  tlie  bark  at  a  sword  thrust 
or  an  ax  cut.  We  learn  from  the  Jesuit  fathers  who 
have  studied  these  people  that  they  believe  in  a  future 
life  and  are  polytheists,  worshiping  particularly  the 
gods  of  the  cardinal  points.  Another  god  takes  care  of 
the  horses  and  cattle,  and  as  there  is  hardly  a  member 
of  this  tribe  who  does  not  possess  some  of  these  animals 
to  assist  him  in  his  labor,  the  aid  of  this  deity  is  con- 
stantly invoked.  There  is  also  the  god  of  the  fields,  to 
whom  prayers  are  offered  for  a  good  crop ;  and  a  feast 
corresponding  to  our  harvest  festival  is  held  in  his 
honor.  Still  other  spirits  inhabit  the  trunks  of  trees 
and  intervene  in  the  affairs  of  men  to  favor  or  hinder 
them.  To  these  propitiatory  sacrifices  are  offered  up  and 
their  good  will  thus  secured,  —  a  practice  similar  to  tliat 
of  the  old  lieathen  Tagalogs  in  invoking  the  favor  of 
the  Tic-Balan,  spirits  of  the  same  nature  as  these. 

An  idol  in  the  shape  of  a  monkey  is  always  worn 
around  the  neck  susjDended  from  a  cord,  and  when  on 
a  journey,  if  they  fear  an  ambush,  they  hold  out  this 
little  image  like  a  plumb  line  and  let  it  spin.  When  it 
comes  to  rest  its  face  is  turned  in  the  direction  where 
the  enemy  are  concealed,  and  they  then  carefully  avoid 
that  place. 

According  to  their  belief,  also,  there  are  two  devils 
who  must  constantly  Ije  kept  in  good  humor.  It  is  wiser 
in  their  estimation  to  honor  them  by  sacrifices  than 


302  THE  PHlLiPPIXE  ISLANDS 

to  worship  the  beuevolent  deities  whose  favor  is  always 
assured.  They  believe  iu  omens  and  are  careful  to  obey 
the  instructions  given  hy  these  signs.  One  most  curi- 
ous practice^  is  oljserved :  when  a  stranger  enters  a  house 
to  visit  and  it  happens  that  a  fowl  flies  up  and  passes 
in  front  of  him,  the  bird  is  immediately  killed  and 
cooked,  and  the  family  in  company  with  the  visitor 
proceed  to  eat  it  as  quickly  as  possible  to  allay  the 
fright  of  the  newcomer  and  cause  his  soul  to  return  to 
the  body. 

The  dead  of  these  people  are  buried  with  lance,  bolo, 
and  shield  beside  them ;  and  from  a  high  post  over 
the  grave  is  huno-  a  basr  of  rice,  so  that  the  soul  of 
the  departed  may  have  sustenance  on  its  journey  to  the 
highest  peak  in  the  vicinity,  whence  by  one  jump  it 
reaches  heaven. 

The  bloodthirsty  Mandayas,  also  of  Mindanao,  are 
strongly  attached  to  their  idolatrous  customs.  They 
believe  in  two  good  principles,  father  and  son,  and  two 
evil  ones,  husband  and  wife.  The  wildest  among  them, 
it  is  reported,  make  human  sacrifices ;  and  offerings  of 
animals  are  very  common. 

Superstitions  abound  among  them,  and  some  are 
indeed  peculiar.  When  an  eclipse  occurs  they  believe 
a  snake  is  devouring  the  sun  or  the  moon,  and  in  order 
to  frighten  it  and  thus  prevent  perpetual  darkness  they 
shout  and  create  a  great  din  by  pounding  upon  vari- 
ous objects.^    When  there  is  an  earthquake  the  same 

1  Sawyer,  Philippines,  p.  342.  2  ibid.,  p.  367  et  seq. 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND   KELIGION  303 

procedure  is  followed  for  the  purpose  of  pacifying  the 
immense  crocodile  which  causes  this  disturbance  by 
moving  around  in  the  center  of  the  earth. 

The  Manobos  are  the  most  numerous  of  the  pagan 
people  of  Mindanao  and  in  their  rites  and  beliefs 
resemble  closely  the  Mandayas.  They  believe  in  three 
principal  divinities,  which  they  imagine  as  powerful 
animals  inhabiting  the  forests  and  exercising  dominion 
over  them.  One  watches  over  the  snares  and  traps  set 
for  deer  and  hogs,  another  is  god  of  the  crops,  and 
another  is  the  cause  of  illness.  There  is  also  a  god 
of  war,  for  whom  it  is  customary  to  go  on  the  war- 
path after  the  liarvest  is  secured.  Ancestral  worship 
is  their  religion,  and  they  have  their  idols,  or  dinatas, 
similar  to  the  anitos  of  the  Igorots.  Natural  phenom- 
ena, as  with  the  other  tribes,  seize  upon  their  imagi- 
nation strongly.  Thunder  is  the  voice  of  the  lightning, 
and  a  rainbow  fills  them  with  awe.  Like  the  Tagalogs, 
they  look  upon  the  crocodile  as  a  sacred  animal  and 
respectfully  address  it  as  grandfather. 

The  Bagobos,  who  inhabit  the  foothills  of  the  volcano 
Apo  in  central  Mindanao,  strangely  enough  do  not  use 
idols.  In  their  belief  they  have  two  souls,  one  of  which 
goes  to  heaven  and  the  other  to  hell.  A  set  of  devils 
exists  with  a  chief  who  has  his  tlirone  on  Mount  Apo  ; 
and  this  volcano  belongs  to  him  as  the  gateway  to  hell. 
He  has  a  thirst  for  human  blood,  and  on  this  account 
human  sacrifices  are  made  to  him.  All  the  other  devils 
are  also  worshiped  that  their  wrath  may  be  appeased 


304  THE  miLlPPlXE   ISLANDS 

aud  the  people  l)e  allowed  to  live.  The  voice  of  their 
god  they  hear  in  the  singing  of  a  certain  species  of 
wood  j)igeon,  which  is  therefore  greatly  respected,  for 
it  warns  them  of  dangers  that  are  imminent. 

The  Moros,  the  numerous  people  of  the  south,  are 
firm  in  their  Mohammedan  belief  and  desire  nothing 
outside  the  teaching  of  the  Koran.  The  Jesuit  mission- 
aries of  Mindanao  have  always  dwelt  upon  the  tenacity 
with  which  these  tribes  hold  to  their  beliefs  and  refuse 
to  accept  any  other  form  of  religion.  They  are,  as  we 
have  seen,  pure  Malays  from  Borneo,  who  were  con- 
verted by  Arabian  missionaries  and  merchants  from 
the  vicinity  of  the  Red  sea ;  they  habitually  fix  their 
abode  either  along  the  beach  or  on  the  banks  of  some 
stream  so  as  to  be  able  always  to  find  water  with  w^hich 
to  perform  the  ablutions  required  of  the  followers  of 
Mohammed.  Their  abstinence  from  all  alcoholic  liquors 
and  other  observances  peculiar  to  their  system  of  reli- 
gion have  Ijeen  remarked  by  various  ofiicers  and  civilians ; 
yet  the  personal  observation  of  the  ^vriter,  though  it 
was  confined  to  the  larger  cities,  was  that  the  Moros 
did  not  pay  to  the  ceremonies  of  their  creed  anything 
like  the  careful  attention  displayed  by  the  Mohamme- 
dans of  India,  for  instance,  or  of  Egypt. 

Their  religious  hierarchy  consists  of  a  chief,  or  high 
priest,  who  has  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  who 
can  read  and  expound  the  Koran ;  and  the  jmndifa,  or 
priest,  who  also  as  a  rule  is  a  pilgrim,  and  who  per- 
forms the  ceremonies  of  marriage,   circumcision,  and 


SUPERSTITTON^S   AND   RELIGION  305 

burial,  and  in  the  earlier  days  was  wont  to  start  the 
holy  wars. 

The  people  are  superstitious  and  fanatical,  and  are 
quite  firm  in  their  belief  that  the  killing  of  a  Christian 
is  a  sure  passport  to  heaven,  —  the  greater  the  number 
killed,  the  larger  the  reward  when  they  arrive  there. 

An  army  officer  in  writing  of  these  people  says : 

Like  most  savage  races  the  Moro  is  extremely  superstitious. 
They  all  wear  hidden  in  their  girdles  some  sort  of  charm,  gener- 
ally a  verse  from  the  Koran  or  a  stone  blessed  by  ajxuidita,  guar- 
anteed to  protect  them  from  death  in  battle  and  bad  luck  in  general. 
Some  of  the  priests  are  wont  to  take  advantage  of  this  weakness 
on  the  part  of  their  followers.  I  know  of  one  pandita  who  sells 
his  chin  whiskers  at  the  price  of  one  dollar,  Mexican  currency, 
per  whisker,  each  hair  being  guaranteed  to  render  harmless  a 
Krag-Jorgensen  or  a  Mauser  bullet. 

In  the  rice  fields  one  often  sees  a  tiny  nipa  thatch 
under  which  is  hidden  a  letter,  written  by  a  priest,  in 
which  a  fatal  attack  of  dysentery  is  promised  any  Moro 
who  attempts  to  steal  the  rice.  From  the  writer's  own 
observation  of  these  people  and  from  all  that  he  has 
been  able  to  learn  concerning  them,  they  are  hardly 
less  superstitious  than  the  pagan  tribes.  Their  Moham- 
medanism has  in  it  a  strong  alloy  of  superstition ;  it 
places  a  few  prescribed  rigid  rules  of  conduct  before 
them,  but  in  no  sense  of  the  word  has  it  been  a 
spiritual  force. 

Many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines,  even  the 
Christian  natives  of  the  lower  class,  share  the  idea  that 


306  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

seems  to  prevail  among  all  Malays,  that  the  soul  is 
al^sent  from  the  body  during  sleep,  and  that  if  death 
occurs  at  that  time  the  soul  is  lost.  ''  May  you  die 
sleeping  "  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  of  their  numer- 
ous cm-ses ;  naturally,  then,  they  think  it  dangerous 
and  wicked  to  awaken  anybody  suddenly,  and  indeed  it 
is  a*  difficult  thing  to  get  a  Filipino  servant  to  wake 
any  member  of  his  master's  family.  High  mountains 
form  important  factors  in  the  religious  beliefs  of  all 
oriental  peoples,  especially  tliose  of  a  low  state  of  civi- 
lization ;  and  in  the  Philippines  among  all  the  non- 
Christian  tribes  the  notion  is  quite  general  that  their 
god,  or  Supreme  Being,  inhabits  the  highest  peak  in 
their  locality,  and  that  this  is  the  last  earthly  station 
on  the  road  to  some  heavenly  land,  —  the  point  whence 
the  soul  departs  for  the  happy  regions  beyond. 

After  this  discussion  of  the  religion  of  the  non- 
Christian  tribes,  whose  numbers  amount  to  about  one 
sixth  of  the  total  population  and  whose  creed  is  so  essen- 
tially enveloped  in  superstition,  let  us  turn  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  subject  of  religion  in  connection  with  the 
remaining  and  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants,  like- 
wise of  Malayan  origin  but,  on  the  contrary.  Christians. 
Even  among  these  people  who  have  become  Christian- 
ized there  are  certain  superstitious  ideas  which  seem 
to  be  inseparable  from  JNIalay  character ;  in  particular 
the  reverence  now  paid  to  the  remains  of  the  dead  points 
to  the  existence  of  a  form  of  ancestor  worship  in  the  past 
the  traces  of  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  effaced. 


SUPEKSTITIONS  AND  KELICIION  307 

The  Jesuit  fathers  furnished  for  the  report  of  the 
first  Philippine  Commission  a  paper  on  Catholicism  in 
the  Islands,  in  which  they  attempted  to  answer  the 
question  as  to  what  the  Filipinos  w^ere  in  a  religious 
way  before  the  arrival  of  Magellan  and  Legaspi.  They 
were,  in  the  opinion  of  these  persons,  what  the  im- 
mense majority  of  the  idolatrous  Indians  of  Asia,  the 
Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  Igorots,  the  Atas,  the  Mano- 
bos,  and  the  savages  of  the  high  ranges  of  jNIindanao 
not  yet  converted  to  the  Christian  faith  are  to-day;  they 
were  animists,  or  worshipers  of  the  souls  of  their  an- 
cestors ;  or  Sabians,  w^orshipers  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars.  They  found  gods  in  plants,  birds,  quadrupeds, 
cliffs,  and  caves ;  and  certain  of  these,  especially  the 
bluebird,  the  crow,  and  the  crocodile,  they  honored 
and  worshiped.  They  had  in  their  houses  many  small 
strange-looking  idols,  which  were  known  to  some  as 
anitos  and  to  others  as  dinatas,  —  spirits  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  are  the  objects  of  worship  among  different 
pagan  tribes. 

Their  idea  of  the  creation  of  the  world  was  expressed 
in  strange  fables.  In  their  belief  the  sky  and  the  water 
were  formerly  walking  together  when  a  kite  interfered 
between  them,  and  in  order  to  keep  the  water  from 
rising  to  the  sky  he  placed  islands  on  it;  and  thus  the 
world  was  formed,  which  for  these  people  was  composed 
of  a  number  of  islands.  This  Filipino  conception  of 
the  creation  of  the  world  is  unlike  the  common  Malay 
theory ;  but   their  story    of  the   creation  of  man  and 


308  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

woman  from  a  piece  of  bamboo  is  a  common  one  in 
Malay  folklore.  In  this  Jesuit  account  of  the  early 
condition  of  the  people  in  general  many  customs  are 
described,  some  of  which  are  still  observed  by  those 
tribes  ^vhich  have  not  yet  accepted  Christianity.  Omens 
and  superstitions  formed  an  important  part  of  their 
creed ;  the  hooting  of  an  owl  and  the  song  of  the  wild 
dove,  the  sight  of  a  serpent,  the  hissing  of  a  lizard,  — 
all  were  to  them  so  many  messages  from  heaven.  They 
believed  in  an  evil  sprite  known  as  the  asuang,  which 
was  feared  by  all  as  a  demon  or  a  witch,  and  a  myriad 
of  fabulous  and  fictitious  horrors  were  attributed  to 
it.  Even  to-day  this  dreaded  monster  is  feared  by 
the  average  native.  By  some  the  asuang  is  supposed 
to  be  a  female  sprite  of  the  woods  who  is  kept  away 
from  the  house  during  childbirth  by  the  husband 
mounting  to  the  roof  and  maintaining  a  disturbance 
for  some  hours;  by  others  it  is  supposed  to  be  a  man 
spirit,  who,  with  his  own  blood,  has  signed  a  contract 
wdth  the  evil  ones  by  which  he  receives  the  privilege 
of  being  able  to  turn  himself  into  the  form  of  a  dog, 
cat,  pig,  or  other  animal,  and  is  also  given  the  power 
to  fly,  thus  making  it  possible  for  him  to  arrive  quickly 
at  the  scene  of  his  mischief.  An  insect,  called  the 
tik-tik,  always  precedes  him,  announcing  misfortune 
to  the  fearful  native.  When  its  sound  is  heard  in 
the  night  he  believes  that  the  dreaded  asuang  is  near, 
and  every  effort  is  made  to  drive  it  away  by  various 
charms. 


SUPEKSTITIUNS   AND   KELIGION  309 

According  to  this  belief,  a  man,  after  signing  the 
contract  with  the  evil  spirits  and  thus  becoming  an 
asuang,  suddenly  finds  that  holes  appear  at  once  under 
his  armpits,  the  one  visible  mark  by  which  this  spirit 
can  be  identified.  All  that  the  monster  then  has  to  do 
if  he  wishes  to  change  into  an  animal  is  to  rub  some 
oil  into  these  holes  and  the  transformation  takes  place 
immediately.  To  keep  the  spirit  away,  a  light  is  kept 
burning  under  the  bed  and  garlic  is  placed  at  each 
corner  of  the  couch.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  monster 
dreaded  even  by  those  natives  who  still  retain  this  belief 
that  they  never  make  friends  or  become  very  intimate 
with  one  before  assuring  themselves  that  he  does  not 
possess  these  visible  characteristics.  This  peculiar  super- 
stition is  supposed  to  be  entirely  of  native  origin  and 
seems  to  have  a  hold  upon  many  of  the  people,  even 
those  who  have  been  Christianized. 

Many  here  at  home  have  probably  heard  of  the  anting- 
anting,  a  charm  which  our  soldiers  often  found  on  the 
bodies  of  Filipinos, — perhaps  a  bit  of  paper  with  writing 
upon  it,  a  coin,  a  button,  a  piece  of  stick  or  bone,  or,  in 
fact,  anything  which  could  be  worn,  and  which  possessed 
the  mysterious  power  of  protecting  the  wearer  from 
death.  Various  forms  of  these  have  been  found,  some, 
as  the  writer  has  seen,  consisting  of  pieces  of  paper 
with  sentences  written  thereon  in  the  native  dialect. 
Another  curious  one  that  has  been  seen  is  a  shirt,  made 
to  be  worn  next  to  the  person,  well  covered  with  signs, 
phrases,   emblems,   and   words  that  were  supposed  to 


310  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

protect  the  entire  upper  part  of  tlie  body ;  and  the 
practice  was  quite  common  among  the  native  soldiers 
of  holding  something  in  their  mouths  to  j^rotect  their 
internal  organs. 

Among  all  these  early  peoples  who  later  became  con- 
verted to  Christianity  the  common  Malay  conception  of 
the  human  soul  prevailed ;  it  was  "  a  thin,  unsubstantial, 
human  image,  or  manikin,  which  is  temporarily  absent 
from  the  body  in  sleep,  trance,  and  disease,  and  perma- 
nently absent  after  death."  ^  The  idea  of  immortality 
remained  to  be  learned  through  the  friar  teachers  of 
Christianity.  By  their  efforts  came  about  the  change 
among  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  making  them  what 
they  are  to-day,  in  contrast  to  their  pagan  and  Moham- 
medan brothers  in  the  Islands.  Idolatry  and  systema- 
tized superstition  disappeared,  and  likewise  slavery, 
polygamy,  usury,  tribal  warfare,  and  other  signs  of 
paganism  which  characterized  the  great  mass  of  Fili- 
pinos at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  story  of  this  early  conquest  in  a  religious  way 
has  already  been  touched  upon.  Philip  II,  we  know, 
inspired  by  religious  zeal,  started  the  M'ork  of  estab- 
lishing Christianity  in  the  Philippines,  which  was  con- 
sidered the  first  o]:)ject  in  their  colonization,  by  sending 
Augustiuian  monks  with  the  Legaspi  expedition  that 
reached  the  Islands  in  1565.  Other  missionaries  of  this 
same  order  soon  followed  to  extend  the  work  of  the 
church.     Convents  were  established  in  Cebu,   Manila, 

1  Skeat,  Malai/  Magic,  p.  47. 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND  RELIGIOX 


311 


and  other  centers,  and  parishes  were  organized  in  the 
various  provinces  of  Luzon  and  Panay. 

The  first  expedition  of  Franciscans  arrived  in  1577, 
and  they  likewise  established  convents  and  parishes  in 
and  around  Manila,  particularly  in  Laguna  and  what  is 
now  Rizal  province,  in  the  Camarines,  and  in  Tayabas. 


Dominican  Priests 

The  first  Ijishop  of  Manila  reached  the  Islands  in 
1581,  and  with  him  came  the  third  missionary  body, 
the  Jesuits,  who  have  since  played  such  an  important 
part  in  an  educational  and  scientific  way  in  the  Islands. 
The  members  of  this  order  started  in  immediately  to 
open  schools  for  religious  instruction,  founded  the  col- 
leges of  Manila  and  Cebu,  and  sent  out  missionaries 
all  through  the  Visayas. 


;i2 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Six  years  later,  in  1587,  the  Dominicans  came  to  the 
Ishmcls ;  and  some  twenty  years  after  these,  in  1607, 
the  Recoletos. 

Thus,  by  the  beginning  of  the  seventeentli  century,  the 
evangelization  of  the  Philippines  by  the  five  great  friar 
orders  was  well  under  way,  and  a  complete  ecclesiastical 


Church  of  Santo   Nino,  City  of  Cebu 


system  had  been  established,  with  the  archbishop  of 
Manila  as  its  head,  assisted  by  the  three  bishops  of  Cebu, 
Nueva  Caceres,  and  Vigan,  and  other  high  dignita- 
ries,—  the  provincials  of  the  monastic  orders.  Besides 
the  members  of  these  orders  there  was  the  secular 
priesthood  composed  in  part  of  Spanish  and  in  part  of 
native  clergy.    In  the  earlier  days  these  were  greatly 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND  RELIGION 


313 


outnumbered  bj  the  regular  clergy,  who  often  refused 
to  acknowledge  their  allegiance  to  the  bishops  and 
archbishop. 

The  activities  of  these  various  religious  bodies  soon 
began  to  extend  over  the  greater  part  of  the  archi- 
pelago, and  by  a  definition  of  their  respective  fields, 
which  became  necessary  within  a  short  time,  the  orders 
were  confined  to 


their  particular 
territories,  within 
which  was 
carried  on  the 
work  of  Chris- 
tianizing, erect- 
ing churches,  and 
founding  schools 
for  religious 
teaching,  which 


Bamboo  Church,  San  Jose,  Xueva  Ecija 


later  added  to  their  curriculum  the  common  elementary 
branches ;  higher  institutions  of  a  broader  scope  were 
established  in  the  more  important  centers.  Theirs  was 
the  real  conquest  of  the  Islands,  and  proceeding  quietly 
but  with  untiring  effort,  often  almost  forgotten  in  the 
midst  of  political  strife,  they  gained  a  hold  on  the  peo- 
ple that  proved  permanent. 

In  regard  to  the  religious  life  of  these  natives  during 
the  process  of  their  conversion,  Friar  Martin  Ignacio,  in 
1584,  writes:  ''Such  as  are  baptized  doo  receive  the 
fayth  with  great  firmenesse,  and  are  good  Christians, 


314  THE   PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

and  would   be  better   if   that    they   were   holpen  with 

good  ensamples."  ^ 

Morga,  writing  in  16U3,  said  of  this  religious  work : 

In  strictest  truth  the  affairs  of  the  faith  have  taken  a  good 
footing,  as  the  people  have  a  good  disposition  and  genius,  and 
they  have  seen  the  errors  of  their  paganism  and  the  truths  of 
the  Christian  religion ;  they  have  got  good  churches  and  monas- 
teries of  wood,  "well  constructed,  with  shrines  and  brilliant 
ornaments  and  all  things  required  for  the  service,  —  crosses, 
candlesticks,  chalices  of  gold  and  silver,  —  many  brotherhoods, 
and  religious  acts,  assiduity  in  the  Sacraments  and  being  present 
at  Divine  service,  and  care  in  maintaining  and  supplying  their 
monks,  with  great  obedience  and  respect ;  they  also  give  for 
prayers  and  burials  of  their  dead,  and  perform  this  with  all 
punctuality  and  liberality. - 

Another  writer,  in  an  account  of  the  friars'  work 

written  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  centiu-y,  said : 

Of  little  avail  would  have  been  the  valor  and  constancy  with 
which  Legaspi  and  his  worthy  companions  overcame  the  natives  of 
the  Islands  if  the  apostolic  zeal  of  the  missionaries  had  not  seconded 
their  exertions  and  aided  to  consolidate  the  enterprise.  The  latter 
were  the  real  conquerors, — the}'  who,  without  any  other  arms  than 
their  virtues,  gained  over  the  good  will  of  the  Islanders,  caused 
the  Spanish  name  to  be  beloved,  and  gave  the  king,  as  it  were  by 
a  miracle,  two  millions  more  of  submissive  and  Christian  subjects.* 

To  quote,  finally,  from  another^  who  was  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  conditions  in  the  Islands,  writing  at 
a  considerably  later  time,  in  March,  1851  : 

Without  any  governing  power  whatever,  the  greatest  moral 
influence  in  these  possessions  is  that  which  the  priests  possess 

^  Mendoza,  Ilistorie  of  the  Kingdome  of  China,  Vol.  II,  p.  263. 
2  Morga,  p.  .310. 

*  Comyn,  State  of  the  Philippine  Islands  in  1810,  etc.  (trans,  by  Wm. 
Walton),  p.  209.  *  English  coii.sul  Farren.  1851. 


SUPEKSTITIONS  AND   RELIGION 


315 


and  divide  among  the  monastic  orders  of  Augustines,  Eecoletos, 
Dominicans,  and  Franciscans  (who  are  all  Spaniards),  and  the 
assistant  native  clergy.  A  population  exceeding  three  million 
souls  is  ranged  into  six  hundred  and  seventy-seven  pueblos,  or 
parishes,  without  reckoning  the  unsubdued  tribes.  In  live  hun- 
dred and  seventy-seven  of  these  pueblos  there  are  churches  with 
convents  or  clerical  residences  attached,  and  about  five  hundred 
of  them  are  in  the  personal  incumbency  of  those  Spanish  monks. 

Other  writers  who  visited  the  Islands  from  time  to 
time  during  the  two  previous  centuries  might  also  be 
quoted  to  show 
how  efficient  was 
the  work  of  the 
friars  in  religion 
and  education; 
and  although 
some  have  de- 
scribed the  people 
during  this  time 
as  bigoted  and 
the  country  as 
priest-ridden,  the 
final  statement  of  the  work  accomplished  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  orders  must  l^e  a  favorable  one. 
The  natives  who  came  under  the  influence  of  these 
Spanish  missionaries  became  at  the  outset  real  Catho- 
lics ;  and  though  their  Catholicism  was  tinged  by  cer- 
tain local  touches  of  superstition,  it  remained  the  object 
of  pious  observance  among  them,  in  contrast  with  the 
practices  of  those  around  them  who  failed  to  come  under 
this  same  influence. 


Church  and  Campanile,  Rosales, 
Pangasinan 


316  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

The  ceremonies  and  the  solemnity  of  the  Catholic 
worship  had  for  them  a  strong  attraction,  as  did  also 
the  solemn  pomp  in  connection  with  the  numerous 
feasts  and  religious  processions.  Its  mysteries  were  the 
som'ce  of  deep  curiosit}^  and  its  teachings  possessed  a 
certain  charm,  perhaps  because  of  the  novelty  and 
strangeness  of  it  all,  perhaps  because  of  the  kind  treat- 
ment they  received  at  the  hands  of  these  unknown 
white-skinned  missionaries,  possibly  for  both  reasons. 
AVhatever  the  explanation,  the  new  faith  continued  to 
gain  strength,  and  the  influence  of  the  church  upon 
the  life  of  these  people  increased.  After  the  religion 
itself  had  been  established  the  activities  of  the  mission- 
aries turned  into  other  channels  ;  they  began  to  take  an 
interest  in  the  civil  affairs  of  the  various  localities  and 
to  assume  certain  administrative  duties,  such  as  the  dis- 
bursement of  local  funds  ;  and  in  this  way  ecclesiastical 
interests  and  influence  became  a  part  of  the  everyday 
life  of  the  people. 

As  time  went  on  the  church  organization  increased 
its  scope  ;  Manila  became  the  metropolitan  diocese,  and 
Jaro  was  added  as  the  fourth  provincial  one,  thus  divid- 
ing the  archipelago  into  five  great  dioceses.  Additional 
missionaries,  too,  came  to  the  Islands  later,  and  in  recent 
times  other  orders  sent  representatives,  —  the  Paulists 
in  1862,  and  the  Capuchins  and  Benedictines  more 
recently,  in  1886.  Converts  came  over  to  the  protecting 
wing  of  the  church  wherever  its  influence  reached,  and 
the  people  accepted  the  new  faith  with  a  sincerity  and 


317 


318  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

piety  that  were  the  subject  of  comment  hj  ahnost  every 
traveler  in  the  Islands.  Public  worship  on  the  Sabbath 
and  holydays  ^vas  regularly  attended ;  and  at  home 
little  altars  were  erected  with  various  images  of  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  and  the  saints, — the  objects  of  daily  devo- 
tion. The  efficacy  of  prayer  was  taught  the  people, 
and  even  to-day  one  may  hear,  as  he  passes  along  in 
the  night  through  almost  any  little  village  in  the  back 
country,  the  recitation  of  the  rosary  and  the  singing 
of  different  hj'mns,  —  practices  that  are  particularly 
common  during  the  celebration  of  the  great  feasts  of 
the  church.  Such  feast  days  as  Christmas,  the  Epiphany, 
Easter,  and  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  are 
observed  with  the  greatest  reverence,  with  processions 
illustrating  various  biblical  events  connected  with  these 
holydays  of  the  church,  general  confession  and  com- 
munion, and  family  prayer  extending  through  the  dura- 
tion of  the  celebration.  Among  the  most  beautiful 
of  religious  customs  are  the  daily  vespers  at  sunset 
during  these  times  and  the  solemn  midnight  masses 
during  the  feast  of  the  Nativity.  The  one  noticeable 
activity  among  the  people  in  general  has  always  been 
their  attendance  at  these  various  church  services  and 
their  careful  observance  of  every  holyday.  On  any 
church  day,  long  before  the  sun  has  risen,  the  throngs 
may  be  met  returning  from  service,  and  later  in  the 
night,  especially  during  the  season  of  Advent,  Holy 
"Week,  and  other  such  occasions,  their  last  prayers  may 
be  heard.    During  all  these  years  the  church  itself  and 


319 


320  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

its  practices  have  remained  the  object  of  the  same  kind 
of  fascination  which  first  attracted  these  people. 

In  later  times  the  part  which  the  different  orders 
pla3'ed  in  the  civil  administration  became  more  impor- 
tant, and  with  their  possession  of  rich  estates  and  the 
great  political  power  which  followed  almost  inevitably, 
their  character  changed  and  they  became  something 
more  than  mere  ministers  of  the  gospel.  The  assump- 
tion by  them  of  additional  duties  in  the  various  munici- 
palities soon  gave  them  as  a  class  a  position  that  was 
second  in  importance  to  none  ;  and  the  exercise  of  these 
extensive  powers  later,  in  a  way  that  proved  injudicious, 
laid  the  foundation  for  serious  antagonism  that  began 
to  make  itself  felt  on  the  part  of  the  populace.  This 
feeling  of  opposition  to  the  extension  of  the  authority 
of  these  monastic  missionaries  beyond  their  own  field 
of  religious  activity  became  more  serious  as  the  property 
holdings  of  the  orders  increased  and  they  became  more 
firmly  established  in  their  dual  capacity  of  spiritual  and 
civil  officials.  The  outcome  was  what  has  come  to  be 
known  to  us  as  the  friar  question,  —  one  which  assumed 
very  serious  proportions  in  the  latter  days  of  Spanish 
rule,  which  was  the  underlying  cause  of  the  last  revo- 
lution against  Spanish  authority  in  the  Islands,  and 
which,  after  remaining  a  puzzling  problem  for  our 
own  government  for  the  past  six  years,  has  finally,  as 
far  as  the  political  side  is  concerned,  Ijeen  brought  to 
a  solution.  The  friar  question  a  short  year  or  two 
ago  was  perhaps  the  most  important  one  which  the 


SUPEKSTITIONS  AND  RELIGION 


321 


Commission  had  to  solve,  and  even  now,  though  our 
government  has  effected  a  satisfactory  arrangement  on 
the  political  side  by  the  purchase  of  the  arable  property 
belonging  to  the  different  orders,  it  remains  for  the 
Roman  Catholic 
church  to  com- 
plete the  solution 
of  the  religious 
problem.  Akeady 
from  the  United 
States  have  ar- 
rived an  arch- 
bishop and  three 
bishops,  who  are 
zealously  striving 
to  upbuild  the  re- 
ligious institutions 
that  were  injured 
or  destroyed  by 
neglect  or  war. 

The  so-called 
friar  question 
dates  rather  far 
back  into  the 
previous  history  of  the  Philippines,  to  the  times  when 
the  members  of  these  orders  first  began  to  act  in  other 
than  a  purely  religious  capacity;  it  has  been  more  of  a 
social,  political,  and  economical  question  than  a  reli- 
gious one,  and  it  is  only  now  that  the  religious  aspect 


Stone  Pulpit 


Ok).) 


THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


alone  is  important.  The  loyalty  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  itself  was  never  questioned;  hostility  to  the 
religious  corporations  was  what  caused  the  popular  out- 
burst of  feeling  against  the  friars,  and  the  people  looked 
upon  the  church  itself  as  entirely  distinct  from  the  Span- 
ish missionaries 
in  their  role  of 
land  proprietors 
and  politicians. 
The  friar,  by  a 
regular  increase 
in  authority,  had 
come  to  take 
active  part  in 
family,  muni- 
cipal, and  provin- 
cial affairs.  He 
was  inspector  of 
t  h  e  p  r  i  m  a  r  y 
schools  and  presi- 
dent of  the  boards 
of  health,  prisons, 
and  charity;  was  in  cliarge  of  the  collection  of  taxes; 
acted  as  a  sort  of  recruiting  officer  for  the  army;  attended 
all  municipal  elections  and  council  meetings,  and  audited 
municipal  accounts  and  passed  upon  municipal  budgets ; 
he  was,  in  fact  if  not  in  theory,  the  municipal  ruler 
and  really  controlled  the  political  situation.  His  per- 
manent residence  in  the  country,  compared  with  the 


Padke 


SUPERSTITIONS   AND   RELIGION 


323 


frequent  changes  of  civil  and  military  officials,  gave 
him  an  advantage  in  his  contest  for  power,  and  thus 
of  all  the  Spanish  officials  he  became  the  most  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  natives. 

Both    the    Schurman    and    Taft    commissions   were 
instructed  to  investigate  this  question  fully,  and,  as  a 


^^^■l 

■■H 

Hj 

■| 

^ 

^^H 

1 

1  Hh 

i 

M 

i 

i 

1 

Padres  studying  in  C'okiudor  of  Convent 

first  step,  the  purchase  of  the  property  holdings  of 
the  various  orders,  amounting  to  some  four  hundred 
and  three  thousand  acres,  was  recommended. 

The  chief  ground  for  hostility  against  the  friars  has 
been  in  their  exercise  of  far  greater  power  than  their 
own  position  and  interests  justified ;  in  their  embodi- 
ment, practically,  of  the  whole  Spanish  government 
in  the  Islands,  with  all  its  distasteful  features;  and 
their  retention  of  parochial  offices  contrary  to  church 


324  TKE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

law,  as  the  people  claimed,  which  decreed  that  local 
parishes  should  be  filled  b}'  the  secular  clergy.  In  cer- 
tain provinces,  moreover,  particularly  in  Cavite,  Laguna, 
and  Bulacjin,  as  well  as  in  the  districts  around  Manila, 
the  political  feeling  against  the  friars  had  in  it  a  trace 
of  agrarianism,  where  for  years  the  friars  had  been 
heads  of  great  manors  upon  which  of  late  they  had 
paid  no  taxes,  and  }'et  from  which  they  secured  a  con- 
siderable income  from  the  native  squatters. 

The  friar  was  often  the  only  man  of  intelligence  and 
training  in  the  locality  who  knew  both  the  native  dia- 
lect and  the  Spanish  language  well,  and  this  knowledge, 
in  connection  with  his  office  as  spiritual  leader  of  the 
people,  had  given  him  an  important  position  as  an 
intermediary  between  the  natives  and  the  rest  of  the 
world  in  almost  every  matter  of  importance.  As  was 
reported  by  the  Taft  Commission  : 

At  first  actually,  and  afterward  by  law,  he  came  to  discharge 
many  civil  functions  and  to  supervise,  correct,  or  veto  every- 
thing which  was  done  or  sought  to  be  done  in  the  pueblo  which 
was  his  parish.  .  .  .  The  truth  is  that  the  whole  government 
of  Spain  in  these  Islands  rested  on  the  friars.  .  .  .  Once  settled 
in  a  parish,  a  priest  usually  continued  there  until  superannuation. 
He  was,  therefore,  a  constant  political  factor  for  a  generation. 
The  same  was  true  of  the  archbishop  and  the  bishops.  .  .  .  The 
friars  were  exempt  from  trial  for  offenses,  except  the  most  hei- 
nous, in  the  ordinary  civil  courts  of  the  Islands  under  the  Spanish 
rule.  .  ,  . 

Besides  these  powers  and  privileges  in  the  years  just 
preceding  the  American  conquest,  many  of  the  residents 


SUPERSTITIONS   AXD   RELIGION 


525 


of  the  different  pueblos  were  deported  to  distant  south- 
ern islands  by  reason  of  suspicion  or  because  of  minor 
offenses ;  and,  whether  wrongly  or  not,  the  friars  w^ere 
charged  with  having  caused  these  deportations,  and 
thus  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  possessing  the  additional 
powers  of  life  and  death  over  their  parishioners.  They 
always  acted  as 
local  agents  of 
Spanish  author- 
ity, and,  in  later 
times,  when  mat- 
ters had  reached 
such  a  crisis,  and 
arrests,  imprison- 
ments, and  exe- 
cutions became 
so  frequent,  their 
connection  wdth 
the  government 

that  ordered  these  was  an  added  incentive  to  the  people 
in  seeking  their  removal. 

Aguinaldo,  in  expressing  his  opinion  to  General  Otis, 
said  that  the  primary  cause  of  the  revolution  was  the 
ecclesiastical  corporations  which,  taking  advantage  of 
the  corrupt  Spanish  administration,  robbed  the  country 
and  stood  in  the  way  of  progress  and  liberty.  One  of 
the  clauses  of  the  Malolos  constitution  itself  provided 
for  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  these  orders ; 
and  public  denunciation  of  their  members  by  different 


Church  and  Bell  Tower,  Victoria, 
Tarlac 


32G 


THE  PHILIPPINE  I8LAXDS 


native  political  organizations  appeared  from  time  to 
time,  charging  the  friars  with  political  oppression  of 
the  people,  with  extortion  and  immorality,  always  with 
a  saving  clause,  however,  which  asserted  their  faith 
and  loyalty  to  the  church  itself. 

The  Filipinos  and  also  the  American  Catholics  in  the 
Islands,  with  whom  the  writer  discussed  this  question, 
pointed  out  as  a  primary  defect  the  lack  of  church 
discipline  among  the  orders.  The  friars,  as  they 
said,  were    independent    of   the    diocesan    authorities. 


CiiiRcn  IX  Capiz,   Paxay 

and  at  different  times  things  were  done  that  were 
not  sanctioned  by  the  church  officials,  and  yet  there 
seemed  to  be  no  way  of  reaching  the  offenders.  One  of 
the  witnesses  who  appeared  before  the  first  Philippine 


SUPERSTITIOXS  AXD  KELIGIOX 


327 


Commission,  a  Filipino  of  intelligence  and,  in  the  writ- 
er's opinion,  integrity,^  stated  that  almost  everything 
about  the  government  was  subjected  to  ecclesiastical 
supervision ;  that  the  friar  has  always  been  the  enemy 


Chukch  in  Tagbilaran,  Bohol 

of  the  Spaniards  themselves  and  that  his  control  en- 
tered into  the  most  private  affairs  of  family  life.  His 
opinion  was  the  same  as  that  of  numerous  other  promi- 
nent natives,  —  that  antagonism  to  the  religious  orders 
was  one  of  the  strong  elements  of  the  revolution  against 
Spain.  Seiior  Luzuriaga,  now  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mission, testified  at  that  time  that  as  far  as  the  island 
of  Negros  was  concerned  the  feeling  of  the  people  was 
completely  hostile  to   the  friars,   particularly  because 

1  Sr.  Calderon,  a  successful  native  attorney. 


328  THE  PHILIPPIXE   ISLANDS 

of  their  grasping  spirit  in  seeking  to  be  the  civil  and 
military  authority  combined,  and,  in  short,  the  com- 
plete owners  of  a  man's  body  and  soul.  In  his  opinion, 
the  friar  was  the  personification  of  autocracy,  and  had 
as  his  object  the  spiritual  and  material  exploitation  of 
the  native.  The  people  of  the  island,  he  added,  are  in 
general  Catholics,  and  in  opposing  the  friars  they  do 
not  attack  the  religion ;  it  is  because  they  have  made 
use  of  this  religion  to  exploit  the  country  and  take 
money  from  the  people  that  the  feeling  of  hostility  has 
arisen. 

Testimony  of  this  same  sort  was  heard  on  almost 
every  side  by  the  commissioners,  and  showed  that  the 
hatred  for  the  friars  was  well-nigh  universal,  extending 
through  all  classes. 

At  the  time  of  the  American  occupation  of  the  Pliilip- 
pines  in  1898  the  total  number  of  missions  in  the  archi- 
pelago was  907,  having  in  their  care,  according  to  the 
church  registry  of  that  3'ear,  6,559,998  souls ;  and  of 
the  746  regular  parishes  all  but  150  were  administered 
by  friars  of  the  Dominican.  Augustinian,  Recoleto,  and 
Franciscan  orders.  By  the  revolts  of  1896  and  1898 
all  the  members  of  these  four  orders  acting  as  parish 
priests  were  driven  from  their  parishes  to  seek  refuge 
in  Manila.  Some  40  were  killed,  while  403  were  put 
into  prison  and  remained  there  until  the  advance  of 
the  American  troops.  And  to-day,  of  the  1124  monks 
who  were  living  in  the  Islands  just  before  the  outljreak 
of  1896,  only  472  remain;  some  of  the  others  either 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND  RELIGION  329 

were  killed  or  died,  and  the  rest  returned  to  Spain  or 
took  up  their  missionary  work  elsewhere,  some  in  China 
and  some  in  South  America.  Besides  these  four  orders 
there  were  some  42  Jesuits,  16  Capuchins,  and  6  Bene- 
dictines engaged  in  mission  work ;  and  though  many 
of  these  left  their  missions  because  of  the  unfavorable 
conditions,  they  were  treated  with  more  consideration 
and  suffered  little,  for  these  orders,  together  with  the 
Paulists,  of  whom  there  are  a  few  engaged  in  teaching, 
have  done  only  mission  work  and  have  not  aroused  the 
hostility  which  exists  against  the  four  great  orders. 
With  the  object  of  determining  the  extent  of  the  ill 
feeling  against  these  religious  orders,  their  influence  in 
administrative  matters,  the  amount  of  property  held  by 
them,  and  the  possil^ility  of  their  return  to  the  Islands, 
a  careful  inquiry  was  made  by  the  Commission,  before 
which  a  host  of  witnesses,  including  members  of  the 
orders  and  the  secular  clergy,  native  laymen,  army 
officers,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  and  American  Catholic 
l)riests,  were  summoned;  and,  as  a  result  of  this  search- 
ing investigation,  the  Commission  became  convinced  that 
the  deep  feeling  against  the  friars  was  founded  in  the 
usurpation  by  these  latter  of  the  powers  of  government. 
In  the  words  of  the  Commission : 

The  Filipino  people  love  the  Catholic  church.  The  solemnity 
and  grandeur  of  its  ceremonies  appeal  most  strongly  to  their 
religious  motives,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  there  is  any 
country  in  the  world  in  which  the  people  have  a  more  pi'ofound 
attachment  for  their  church  than  this  one.  .  .  .  The  people 
would  gladly  receive  as  ministers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion 


330  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

any  but  those  who  are  to  them  the  embodiment  of  all  in  the 
Spanish  rule  that  was  hateful.  .  .  .  We  are  convinced  that  a 
return  of  the  friars  to  their  parishes  will  lead  to  lawless  violence 
and  murder,  and  that  the  people  will  charge  the  course  taken  to 
the  American  government,  thus  turning  against  it  the  resent- 
ment felt  toward  the  friars.  .  .  .  The  question  for  the  prelate 
and  statesman  is  not  whether  the  bitter  feeling  toward  the  friars 
is  justified  or  not,  but  whether  it  exists.  It  does  not  seem  to  us, 
therefore,  to  aid  in  reaching  a  conclusion  to  point  out  that  all 
the  civilization  found  in  the  Philippines  is  due  to  the  friars. 
...  A  popular  bias  or  prejudice,  deep  seated  in  an  ignorant 
people,  is  not  to  be  disregarded  because  it  cannot  stand  the  test 
of  reason  or  evidence. 

After  this  hearing  on  the  friar  question  had  been 
completed  and  it  was  decided  to  purchase  all  the  prop- 
erty of  these  orders,  as  a  first  stej)  in  this  work  a  confer- 
ence was  held  between  Governor  Taf t  and  Pope  Leo  XIII 
at  Rome,  the  result  of  which  was  that  Papal  Delegate 
Guidi  was  sent  to  the  Islands  to  aid  in  the  arrange- 
ments for  this  purchase.  After  a  series  of  negotiations 
extending  over  a  considerable  period  of  time,  an  agree- 
ment Avas  finally  arrived  at  by  which  all  the  land  held 
by  the  different  orders  was  delivered  over  to  the  pos- 
session of  the  Insular  Government  for  the  sum  of 
$7,239,000. 

Thus  one  element  of  the  friar  problem  has  been 
eliminated  by  the  purchase  of  their  lands,  and  yet  by 
no  means  has  the  entire  matter  been  settled.  These 
negotiations  for  the  sale  of  their  lands  have  been  in 
fact  aside  from  the  real  friar  question  which  to-day, 
somewhat  simplified,  remains  for  the  Catholic  church 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND  RELIGION 


GO. 


to  solve.  The  return  or  nonreturn  of  these  monastic 
priests  to  their  parishes  now  rests  with  the  chiu-ch 
itself,  and  in  view  of  the  earnest  recommendation  of 
the  Commission,  the  indelible  impression  which  the 
people  seem  to  have  gained  of  these  clergymen,  and  the 
golden  opportunity  which  is  open  for  the  introduction 


Ciiruc  II   IN  Angeles,  Pampanga 

of  American  priests  with  their  American  sphit  and 
liberality,  the  only  wise  decision  would  seem  to  be  to 
substitute  these  latter  in  place  of  the  friars. 

The  charges  of  immorality  so  frequently  made  against 
the  friars  the  writer  had  no  adequate  means  of  investi- 
gating, yet  he  did  observe  all  over  the  archipelago  the 
bitter  feeling  against  members  of  these  religious  orders 
and  heard  pretty  definite  reports  of  an  evident  relax- 
ation of  the  hold  of  Catholicism  on  the  people  due  to  the 


332  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

personnel  of  the  church.    Immorality  in  a  degree  un- 
doubtedly existed,  and  yet,  as  the  bishop  of  Jaro  said : 

You  must  bear  in  mind  it  would  be  very  strange  if  some 
priests  should  not  fall.  To  send  a  young  man  out  to  what  might 
be  termed  a  desert,  the  only  white  man  in  the  neighborhood, 
surrounded  by  elements  of  licentiousness,  with  nobody  but  the 
Almighty  to  look  to,  with  the  climatic  conditions  urging  him 
to  follow  the  same  practices  as  surround  him,  it  is  a  miracle 
if  he  does  not  fall. 

Although  there  has  from  time  to  time  been  unmistak- 
able evidence  of  misconduct  in  isolated  cases,  immorality 
was  not  the  principal  ground  for  hostility  to  the  friars ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  native  priests  who  have  taken  their 
places  to-day  are  certainly  of  no  higher  moral  standard, 
—  by  which  statement  the  ^\Titer  does  not  intend  to 
convey  the  impression  that  the  standard  of  the  friars  as 
a  class  was  low, —  and  yet  the  people  do  not  feel  any 
ill  will  as!;ainst  them  on  such  score. 

It  is  the  conviction  of  the  writer  that  the  return  of 
these  friars  to  their  parishes  in  the  Islands  would  be  in 
the  highest  degree  inadvisable.  The  work  of  winning 
over  these  people  to  the  American  government  and  of 
reconstructing  the  civil  organism  has  thus  far  proceeded 
so  successfully  that  we  can  ill  afford  to  invite  failure 
by  any  such  means  as  this.  The  people  throughout  the 
Islands  are  practically  unchanged  in  their  view  as  to 
these  friar  missionaries,  and  have  cultivated  a  con- 
fidence in  our  administration  in  great  part  because  of 
their   belief    that   through    the    new    government   the 


SUPERSTITIONS  AND  KELIGION  333 

deliverance  from  these  spiritual  leaders  is  to  be  perma- 
nent. The  following  opinion,  which  the  writer  knows 
by  observation  is  voiced  by  Filipinos  almost  everywhere, 
comes  from  a  devout  Catholic,  a  native  Filipino,  one 
of  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court. ^  He  said  with 
reference  to  the  return  of  the  friars : 

The  clinging  of  the  friars  to  the  Philippines  and  their  staying 
in  the  towns  under  the  name  of  parish  priests,  by  virtue  of 
special  grants  obtained  in  Rome,  to  the  detriment  of  the  ordinary 
and  general  laws  of  the  Catholic  church  and  to  the  prejudice  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline,  constitute,  according  to  popular  opinion 
and  the  deep  convictions  of  the  Filipino  people,  a  constant  and 
positive  menace  to  their  rights  and  liberties,  which  they  believe 
are  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution  and  flag  of  the  Union ;  and 
point  to  the  time,  sooner  or  later,  when  the  true  liberal  and 
democratic  character  of  the  government  which  is  to  be  definitely 
established  in  the  Islands  will  be  warped  and  twisted  out  of 
semblance  to  itself ;  for  the  Filipinos  in  general  see  in  the  friars 
only  a  lot  of  powerful  feudal  lords,  hostile  to  their  progress  and 
culture,  to  their  rights  and  liberties,  and  they  think  that  the 
mere  contact  between  the  friars  and  the  American  officials  of 
all  ranks  will  end  in  changing  the  nature  and  adulterating 
the  character  and  forms  of  the  American  administration,  con- 
verting it  into  a  monastic  one,  similar  to  the  former  Spanish 
administration. 

As  a  liberal  but  sincere  believer  in  some  form  of  reli- 
gion for  every  people,  the  writer  has  viewed  with  doubt 
a  certain  tendency  on  the  part  of  so-called  enlightened 
natives  to  the  exercise  of  free  thought.  Conditions  are 
such  as  to  urge  the  Roman  Catholic  church  here  in  the 
United  States  to  send  its  best  material  just  as  soon  as 

1  Floreiitino  Torres. 


334  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

an  adequate  supply  can  be  made  available  to  revivify 
and  reunite  the  Philippine  Catholic  church,  for  it  is  the 
religion  best  suited  to  the  temperament,  spirit,  and 
character  of  the  various  Filipino  races. 

An  illustration  for  the  necessity  of  such  work  is  the 
recent  anti-Roman  Catholic  movement  which  started 
two  years  ago  in  Manila  under  the  leadership  of  Padre 
Gregoria  Aglipay,  who  styled  himself  Archbishop  of 
the  National  Filipino  Catholic  church.  The  movement 
seemed  to  gain  footing  at  once ;  and,  with  the  active 
support  of  Aguinaldo  and  a  few  other  Filijjinos  of 
some  prominence  and  of  free-thought  tendencies,  it  has 
drawn  to  its  standard  a  sufficient  following  to  demon- 
strate to  the  ordinary  native  mind  that  neither  the  law 
nor  those  in  authority  will  interfere  with  entire  free- 
dom of  worship. 

This  leader  of  the  new  religion  has  been  active  in  his 
efforts,  and  has  perfected  an  organization  with  bishops 
in  different  parts  of  the  Islands,  though  beyond  this 
the  movement  has  not  yet  gone  far.  Aglipay  himself 
has  attracted  large  native  audiences  in  and  around  the 
capital,  and  they  have  seemed  apparently  in  sympathy 
with  the  movement  which  he  is  trying  to  establish. 
Little  can  be  said  of  the  effect  of  this  as  3'et,  though 
nothing  serious  in  the  way  of  a  schism  seems  to  prom- 
ise; and  with  the  advent  of  an  additional  number  of 
American  priests  it  is  believed  that  certain  malcontents 
who  are  behind  this  movement  will  be  reconciled  and 
return  to  the  church. 


SUPEKSTITIONS  AND  RELIGION  335 

Among  the  American  Protestant  bodies  that  have 
taken  up  mission  work  in  the  Philippines  are  the  Pres- 
byterians, Baptists,  Methodists,  EpiscopaUans,  Christian 
Disciples,  and  possibly  one  or  two  other  denominations. 
Of  the  Protestant  missionary  movement  there  is  not  much 
to  be  said  as  yet,  though  its  agents  have  already  estab- 
lished themselves  in  many  parts  of  the  Islands. 

The  Episcopal  mission  is  represented  by  a  bishop,  sev- 
eral clergymen,  a  number  of  kindergarten  teachers,  and 
many  trained  nurses ;  and  under  its  influence  settle- 
ment work  and  a  free  dispensary  have  been  established 
in  Manila,  and  missionary  stations  have  been  founded 
in  the  mountains  among  the  Igorots.  In  Manila,  too, 
there  are  already  established  among  the  poorer  classes 
a  few  Filipino  Protestant  churches ;  and  an  industrial 
school  has  been  started  by  the  Presbyterians.  Through- 
out the  archipelago  the  Bible  is  being  translated  into 
the  native  languages  and  a  certain  number  of  converts 
are  undoubtedly  being  secured.  A  tendency  is  indeed 
manifest  here  and  there  to  fall  away  from  the  Roman 
church  now  that  conditions  are  changed  and  the  period 
of  restraint  seems  to  have  passed;  and  there  is  some 
degree  of  truth  in  the  statement  made  by  the  Protestant 
missionaries  that  conditions  seem  to  furnish  a  favorable 
opportunity  for  their  church  to  do  a  service  to  the 
Filipino  people. 

The  pure  form  of  Roman  Catholicism  found  in  Eu- 
rope and  America  does  not  exist  in  the  Islands.  It  has 
drawn  to  itself  superstitions  of  native  origin  and  certain 


33G  THE  PHILIFPIXE  I.SLAXDS 

principles  from  the  popular  code  in  vogue  there ;  the 
jDeople  are  more  superstitious  and  more  impressed  with 
no^'elty  and  perhaps  therefore  less  constant.  Yet  Philip- 
pine Catholicism  is  in  reality  the  concrete  embodiment 
of  the  spirit  and  character  of  the  people;  it  has  become 
so  intermixed  in  their  very  fiber,  it  seems  so  naturally 
fitted  to  them  and  accommodates  itself  so  perfectly  to 
their  nature,  that  it  cannot  be  doubted,  however  loath 
Protestant  missionaries  may  be  to  accept  the  conclusion, 
that  it  alone  is  the  religion  for  these  people  and  will 
continue  to  be.  Revitalization,  more  rigid  discipline, 
and  American  priests,  —  ^progressive,  adaptable,  and  in 
sympathy  with  American  political  ideals, —  are  the  needs 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  the  Philippines,  and 
when  they  are  supplied  the  religious  problem  in  the 
Islands  will  be  settled. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

GOVERNMENT 

Through  our  study  of  the  history  of  the  Islands  we 
gained  some  idea  of  their  government  and  administra- 
tion ;  and  our  discussion  of  the  rehgion  of  these  people 
has  thrown  light  upon  the  position  of  the  ecclesiastical 
body  in  its  control  of  civil  as  well  as  church  affairs. 
For  our  purpose  here  it  will  be  hardly  necessary  to 
enter  into  any  lengthy  description  of  the  tribal  govern- 
ments which  prevailed  before  the  conquest  of  the  archi- 
pelago by  the  Spaniards.  In  this  earlier  time,  as  we 
know,  the  different  peoples  were  living  about  on  the 
shores,  fields,  and  in  the  woods,  in  groups  of  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  families,  called  harangays,  which  were 
ruled  by  a  chief  or  leading  man  to  whom  was  given 
the  name  of  caheza.  This  ancient  office,  the  head  of  a 
hundred,  or  caheza  de  harangai/,  was  kept  up,  at  least 
in  name,  by  the  Spaniards  ;  but  under  them,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  the  position  ceased  to  be  one  of  honor  and 
dignity ;  the  local  chief  became  a  mere  tax  collector, 
an  officer  hated  by  the  people  and  punished  severely 
by  the  government  if  the  revenues  were  not  forthcom- 
ing. In  this  way  the  office,  which  before  the  coming 
of  the  Spaniards  was  considered  the  highest  and  most 

337 


338  THE  rJLlLlPPINE  ISLANDS 

honorable  of  all  local  preferments,  fell  into  such  dis- 
grace that  it  became  necessary  to  pass  a  law  com- 
pelling service  in  this  capacity. 

Starting  with  this  original  territorial  unit  of  the 
group  of  one  hundred,  we  find  a  development  of  it  in 
the  ward,  or  harrio,  as  it  was  called,  which  was  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  harangans  ;  in  the  town  or  muni- 
cipality, which  embraced  various  barrios;  and  finally 
in  the  province,  w^hich  included  the  various  towns  and 
formed  a  large  territorial  and  political  division. 

The  governor  general  j)i"esided  over  the  archipelago, 
a  governor  supervised  the  affairs  of  each  province,  the 
municipal  council  administered  the  affairs  of  the  town, 
and  the  head  of  the  hundred  represented  the  govern- 
ment as  a  sort  of  agent  in  the  harangaij. 

The  governor  general  was  appointed  from  the  home 
country,  as  were  also  the  provincial  governors.  The  mu- 
nicipal council  members,  composed  of  a  captain  and  four 
lieutenants,  were  elected  by  twelve  delegates  of  thepri?i- 
cipales,  or  first  citizens  of  the  town,  who  were  qualified 
Ijy  having  held  certain  offices  and  paid  a  land  tax  amount- 
ing to  at  least  fifty  dollars ;  and  the  caheza  de  haramjaij 
was  practically  elected  by  this  municipal  tribunal. 

A  brief  consideration  of  this  scheme  of  Spanish  gov- 
ernment in  practice  in  the  archipelago  during  the  period 
preceding  American  occupation  will  assist  materially  in 
understanding  the  character  of  our  own  endeavors  in 
the  administration  of  the  Islands.  Durhig  this  survey 
of  political  matters  it  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 


GOVERNMENT  339 

that  in  practice  ecclesiastical  influences  were  always 
exceedingly  strong  and,  to  use  the  expression  of  the 
head  of  one  of  the  great  orders,  the  friars  were  the 
"  pedestal  or  foundation  of  the  sovereignty  of  Spain  in 
these  Islands,  which  being  removed  the  whole  structure 
would  topple  over."  In  tlie  general  government  the 
archbishop  was  in  the  last  resort  more  powerful  than 
the  governor  general ;  and  in  municipal  affairs  in  actual 
practice  the  parochial  priest  w^as  local  government  itself. 
The  character  of  the  Spanish  colonization  must  also  be 
remembered,  for  in  reality  the  archipelago  formed  one 
great  mission,  and  conversion  to  Christianity  rather 
than  inculcation  of  ideal  political  principles  was  the 
chief  ol^ject  in  view.  Political  institutions  indeed  were 
only  a  means  toward  the  attainment  of  these  religious 
ends,  and  bearing  this  in  mind  we  may  be  better 
able  to  understand  the  paramount  influence  exercised 
Ijy  ecclesiastical  officials,  and  the  position  of  the  chm^ch 
in  matters  that  seem  to  us  quite  without  its  domain.  As 
has  been  truly  said,  "  The  legal  status  of  the  Indians 
before  the  law  was  that  of  minors,  and  no  provision 
w^as  made  for  their  arriving  at  their  majority.  The 
clergy  looked  upon  these  wards  of  the  state  as  the  school 
children  of  the  church,  —  the  only  thought  was  to  make 
Christians  and  never  citizens."  ^ 

The  form  of  the  general  government  of  the  archi- 
pelago   w^as    that    of     a    highly    centralized    colonial 

1  Le  Gen  til  (De  la  Galaisifere),  Voyage  dans  les  mers  de  VInde  (Paris, 
1781),  Vol.  II,  p.  61. 


340  THE  PHILIPPIKE  ISLANDS 

administration  closely  bound  to  and  controlled  by  the 
sovereign  government  of  Madrid.  The  crown  together 
with  the  Spanish  parliament  made  the  supreme  laws  for 
the  government  of  the  Islands ;  and  the  royal  power 
was  immediately  exercised  by  the  department  for  the 
colonies  presided  over  by  a  cabinet  minister.  There 
was  also  an  important  advisory  body  in  the  Islands,  the 
Council  of  the  Philippines,  which  aided  in  the  work  of 
administration. 

The  governor  general  was  appointed  b}^  the  crown 
with  the  consent  of  the  cabinet  and  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  minister  for  the  colonies.  He  held 
office  for  no  stated  term  but  rather  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
crown ;  he  was  its  personal  representative  and  as  such 
was  the  chief  administrative  and  executive  officer,  under 
the  immediate  control  of  this  minister  for  the  colonies. 
Within  the  Philippines  he  held  the  chief  command  of 
the  army  and  navy,  and  his  appointing  power  embraced 
all  branches  of  the  civil  service  in  the  Islands.  His 
authority  extended  to  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  integrity  of  the  territory,  to  the 
conservation  of  public  order,  the  observance  and  execu- 
tion of  the  laws,  and  the  protection  of  person  and 
property. 

As  a  sort  of  cabinet  to  the  governor  general  there 
was  the  Council  of  the  Philippines,  already  mentioned, 
or,  as  it  was  sometimes  called,  the  Board  of  Authorities, 
comprising  the  archbishop  of  Manila,  the  lieutenant 
general,  the  commander  of  the  navy,  the  treasurer  of 


GOVERNMENT  341 

the  archipelago,  the  director  general  of  civil  adminis- 
tration, the  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  the 
attorney-general.  This  body  was  entirely  advisory  in 
character  and  its  decision  was  in  no  way  binding  upon 
the  chief  executive. 

There  was,  further,  the  Council  of  Administration, 
which  served  as  a  mere  representative  advisory  board, 
having  for  its  chief  duty  the  consideration  "of  general 
and  local  budgets  and  receipts.  Its  action  was  likewise 
not  binding  upon  the  governor  general. 

Provincial  governments  organized  upon  a  civil  basis 
were  in  Spanish  times  found  only  in  Luzon,  where  they 
numbered  some  twenty  or  more.  No  civil  government 
was  established  in  the  Visayan  islands  by  the  Spaniards, 
although  the  islands  of  Negros  and  certain  portions  of 
Panay  were  quite  as  far  advanced  politically  as  some 
of  the  provinces  which  were  given  civil  government  in 
Luzon  ;  and  the  rule  in  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  archipel- 
ago was  always  a  strictly  military  one.  The  provincial 
governors  were  the  direct  representatives  of  the  governor 
general  and  always  subject  to  him.  They  were  appointed 
from  Madrid  and  were  invariably  Spaniards. 

Aiding  these  governors  were  provincial  boards  com- 
posed of  nine  members,  including  the  governor  general 
always  as  president  ex  officio,  the  attorney-general,  the 
treasurer,  and  several  other  civil  officials,  together  with 
two  ecclesiastical  members  chosen  from  the  religious 
orders.  The  functions  of  this  board,  again,  were  solely 
inspection  and  consultation  ;  in  short,  there  was  really 


342  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

no  provincial  government  except  the  governor,  who 
represented  the  governor  general. 

Locally,  the  municij)al  council,  although  subject  to 
the  inspection  of  this  provincial  council  and  to  the  veto 
and  corrective  powers  of  the  governor  and  the  governor 
general,  nevertheless  within  a  narrow  sphere,  and  ten- 
tatively and  conditionally,  administered  the  affairs  of 
the  toAvn,  which  thus  had  in  a  way  a  kind  of  popular 
govermnent.  Under  a  very  late  law  ^  municipal  councils 
were  established  in  the  towns  of  Luzon  and  the  Visayan 
islands,  composed  first  of  the  governor  general  by  virtue 
of  his  office,  and  in  addition  five  other  members,  known 
as  the  municipal  captain  and  four  lieutenants,  who  were 
designated  respectively  the  chief  lieutenant,  the  lieu- 
tenant of  police,  the  lieutenant  of  the  fields,  and  the 
lieutenant  of  live  stock.  These  offices  were  honorary 
and  ol)ligatory  for  those  chosen  to  them.  The  term  of 
office  was  four  years,  and  the  method  of  electing  mem- 
bers was  interesting  chiefly  because  it  showed  the  great 
limitation  of  the  franchise  and  the  absence  of  anything 
like  universal  suffrage  ;  for  the  system  did  not  rest  even 
upon  an  educational  or  a  property  qualification,  but  con- 
ferred the  right  of  voting  only  upon  the  principal  men 
of  tlie  towns,  who  elected  twelve  delegates,  who  in  turn 
chose  the  members  of  the  council. 

We  have  seen  how  Spain  became  convinced  of  the 
necessity  for  radical  reforms  during  what  turned  out  to 
be  the  last  period  of  her  dominion  in  the  Islands,  and 

1  In  1893. 


GOVERNMENT  343  - 

how  earnest  were  some  of  the  efforts  and  how  real  the 
results  of  her  attempt  to  satisfy  popular  demand  at  the 
thne.  The  excessive  centralization  which  had  always 
characterized  Spanish  rule  in  the  Islands  became  one 
of  the  crying  evils,  and  as  a  reform  measure  the  minis- 
ter for  the  colonies  at  the  time,  Senor  Maura,  drew  up 
the  law  mentioned  above,  which  aimed  to  abolish  this 
feature  and  to  restore  to  the  people  some  of  the  func- 
tions of  local  government  which  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  exercise  in  the  earlier  centuries  previous  to 
the  Spanish  conquest.  The  measure  was  not  ill  aimed, 
but  was,  however,  ill  timed,  and  came  too  late  to  satisfy 
the  Filipino  leaders  of  reform,  A  close  examination, 
moreover,  will  show  that  it  was  largely  a  mere  pretense 
of  reestablishing  the  communal  home  rule  of  the  ancient 
regime.  The  governor  of  the  province  could  admonish, 
fine,  or  suspend  the  members  of  the  municipal  council, 
while  the  governor  general  had  the  power  to  dismiss 
any  or  all  of  them.  Further  than  this,  the  captain,  or 
mayor,  could  set  aside  any  action  of  the  council  as  he 
saw  fit ;  and  the  parish  priest  continued  the  most  potent 
factor  in  this  local  government.  Briefly,  centralization 
extended  down  to  the  very  towns  themselves ;  the 
influence  of  the  chief  executive  was  felt  in  these  local 
governments ;  and  popular  rule  existed  little  more  than 
in  name. 

The  defects  of  this  Spanish  system  of  administration, 
as  they  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  report  of  the  first 
Philippine  Commission,  were  (1)  the  boundless  powers 


344  THE  PHILIPPINK    ISLxVXDS 

of  the  governor  general;  (2)  the  centralization  of  all 
governmental  functions  in  Manila;  (3)  the  absence  of 
representative  institutions  in  which  the  Filipinos  might 
make  their  needs  and  desires  known ;  (4)  the  pernicious 
system  of  taxation;  (5)  the  plethora  of  officials  who  lived 
on  the  country  and  by  their  numbers  oljstructed  the 
public  business  which  they  professed  to  carry  on ;  (6)  the 
division  of  minor  responsibilities  through  the  establish- 
ment of  rival  boards  and  offices ;  (7)  the  expensiveness 
of  the  system  and  the  corruption  thereby  bred;  and 
(8)  the  confusion  that  resulted  between  the  functions  of 
the  state,  the  church,  and  the  religious  orders. 

One  who  has  devoted  any  study  to  this  particular 
phase  of  the  question  can  hardly  disagree  with  these 
conclusions ;  and  as  we  progress  we  shall  see  to  what 
extent  these  abuses  have  been  remedied  and  the  people 
permitted  to  participate  in  governing.  This  much,  at 
least,  can  be  said  now :  a  capable  and  honest  govern- 
ment under  the  American  rule  has  been  establislied; 
state  and  church  have  been  separated ;  public  revenues 
are  now  used  solely  to  defray  the  legitimate  expenses 
of  the  government  and  the  cost  of  duly  authorized 
public  works  and  improvements.  Consideration  for  the 
Filipinos  as  the  people  of  the  soil  and  the  owners  of 
the  country  has  been  put  foremost ;  the  making  of  citi- 
zens is  deemed  of  primary  importance ;  and  the  real 
interests  of  the  natives  are  consulted. 

That  it  was  reform  in  the  scheme  of  government 
which  the  Filipinos  desired  more  than  independence  at 


GOVERNMENT  345 

the  time  seems  to  be  the  only  conclusion  to  be  drawn 
from  the  extensive  inquiries  made  by  the  first  Commis- 
sion just  after  their  arrival  in  the  Islands  in  the  early 
part  of  1899.  Hundreds  of  witnesses  testified  before  it 
on  the  subject  of  the  popular  desire  for  independence, 
and  though  all  varieties  of  opinion  w^ere  expressed, 
many  of  them  from  sympathizers  wdth  the  insurgents, 
yet  they  were  agreed  that  because  of  the  ignorance 
and  political  inexperience  of  the  masses,  the  number  of 
languages,  the  varieties  of  culture  and  modes  of  life, 
and  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  intercommunication, 
an  independent  Philippine  government  was  at  that  time 
neither  possible  nor  desirable.  And  to-day  even  the 
most  patriotic  Filipinos  declare  that  the  Islands  cannot 
yet  stand  alone  ;  they  need  the  tutelage  and  protection 
of  the  United  States  in  order,  in  their  oj)inion,  that 
they  may  become  self-governing  and  independent.  In 
a  w^ord,  then,  ultimate  independence  is  the  aspiration 
and  goal  of  the  intelligent  natives,  —  and  yet  an  object 
w^hich  they  are  convinced  is  not  possible  of  early  realiza- 
tion. Those  who  appeared  before  the  first  Commission 
wanted  immediately  religious  liberty,  fundamental  per- 
sonal rights,  and  the  largest  measure  of  home  rule. 
They  sought  free  speech,  the  right  of  association,  the 
right  of  petition ;  they  wanted  the  opposite  of  "  arbi- 
trary arrest,  detention,  prosecution,  or  imprisonment," 
'' violability  of  the  home,  papers,  and  effects,"  "private 
laws,"  "  special  tribunals,"  "  unearned  emoluments."  ^ 

1  Report  of  the  First  Philippine  Commission,  I,  p.  82, 


346 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


We  have  already  spoken  briefly  of  the  part  the 
Philippines  played  in  our  war  with  Spain,  the  insur- 
rection which  followed,  and  the  final  general  pacifica- 
tion of  the  Islands.  On  August  13,  181)8,  as  we  know, 
Manila  surrendered,  and  Merritt,  commanding  general, 
became  governor.  On  the  next  day,  the  14th,  he  issued 
a  proclamation  in  which  he  declared  the  existence  of 


Seat  of  Insurgent  Government,  IMalolos 

war  and  the  destruction  of  Spanish  authority;  assured 
protection  in  civil  and  religious  affairs ;  announced  a 
government  of  occupation  and  the  continuance  of  mu- 
nicipal laws  affecting  private  rights ;  created  a  provost- 
marshal  district  for  police  regulation  ;  opened  the  port 
of  Manila  to  the  commerce  of  all  neutral  nations; 
and  extended  protection  to  places  devoted  to  religious 
worship,   art,   science,  and   education.     On   August   15 


GOVERNMENT  347 

general  orders  were  issued  for  the  assumption  of  civil 
government  by  our  military  authorities  in  the  city  of 
Manila  and  the  district  of  Cavite,  and  assignments  of 
offices  were  made.  The  next  day,  the  16th,  a  cablegram 
from  Washington  announced  the  cessation  of  hostilities 
pending  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  The  civil 
courts  as  they  existed  under  the  Spanish  government 
were  soon  permitted  to  reopen,  subject  to  supervision 
by  the  military  autliorities. 

The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  December,  and  dur- 
ing this  same  month  the  proclamation  was  made  that 
municipal  law  should  remain  in  force  as  far  as  appli- 
cable and  should  he  administered  by  ordinary  tribunals 
presided  over  by  the  representatives  of  the  people,  the 
functions  of  civil  and  municipal  government  to  be  per- 
formed by  persons  chosen  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Islands.  Pending  the  ratification  of 
the  treaty,  President  McKinley  appointed  in  January, 
1890,  the  first  Philippine  Commission,  which  we  have 
come  to  know,  from  its  president,  as  the  Schurman  Com- 
mission. Shortly  after,  this  body  reached  the  Islands 
and  began  its  work  of  investigating  the  conditions  of 
the  country  and  the  capacities  of  the  people. 

Under  General  Otis  the  whole  archipelago  was  consti- 
tuted a  military  division  with  headquarters  at  Manila, 
and  separated  into  the  various  departments  of  northern 
Luzon,  southern  Luzon,  the  Visayas,  Mindanao,  and 
Jolo,  each  of  which  was  set  off  into  districts.  The  vari- 
ous towns  were  recognized  as  municipal  corporations, 


348  THE   PHJLJPPINK    ISLANDS 

and  under  the  supervision  of  the  post  commanders, 
mayors,  or  jjresidentes,  and  councilors  were  elected ;  and 
by  a  series  of  general  orders  from  headquarters  steps 
began  to  be  taken  toward  establishing  other  local  gov- 
ernments. For  the  time  being  the  commanding  officers 
of  the  military  districts  were  constituted  governors  of 
the  provinces,  as  they  had  been  defined  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  thus  a  pretty  comprehensive  administrative  system 
became  established  in  which  lay  the  foundation  for  the 
later  civil  government.  The  work  performed  by  the 
American  arm}^  officials  as  civil  administrators  during 
this  military  regime  was  excellent ;  not  only  were  mu- 
nicipal governments  reorganized,  but  roads  and  bridges 
were  constructed,  courts  were  reestablished,  and  schools 
in  which  soldiers  were  detailed  as  teachers  were  opened. 
In  a  word,  the  civil  experiments  and  administration 
of  our  military  officials  prepared  the  way  for  the  civil 
Commission. 

The  second  Commission  was  appointed  March  14, 
1900,  composed  of  William  H.  Taft,  president.  Dean  C. 
Worcester,  Luke  E.  AY  right,  Henry  C.  Ide,  and  Bernard 
Moses ;  this  later  became  the  Philippine  Civil  Commis- 
sion, and  with  its  advent  into  the  Islands,  June  3,  1000, 
dates  the  real  bes^innino;  of  civil  administration  under 
the  present  American  rule. 

General  MacArthur  had  succeeded  General  Otis  as 
commanding  general  and  governor  general  and  retained 
this  position  of  chief  military  official  and  the  highest 
legislative  and  executive  officer  until  September  1, 1900, 


GOVERNMENT  349 

when  civil  aifairs  were  turned  over  to  the  charge  of  the 
Commission  previously  appointed. 

Immediately  upon  its  arrival  in  Manila  the  Philippine 
Civil  Commission  began  a  series  of  investigations  pre- 
paratory to  the  establishment  of  a  civil  government. 
It  had  been  vested  by  the  President,  through  the 
Secretary  of  War,  wdth  authority  to  exercise  duties  of 
a  legislative  nature,  which  were  to  Ije  transferred  from 
the  military  governor  to  the  Commission,  beginning  Sep- 
tember 1 ;  and  it  was  left  free  to  exercise  this  legis- 
lative function  in  such  a  way  as  it  should  deem  proper 
and  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  it  should  pre- 
scribe until  the  later  establishment  of  a  central  civil 
government.  The  same  deliberation  that  was  followed 
by  the  previous  Schurman  Commission  was  observed 
during  this  period  of  investigation  from  June  until 
September.  Similar  methods  of  calling  witnesses  from 
all  classes  of  Filipinos  to  give  testimony  as  to  the  form 
of  government  best  adapted  to  the  Islands  and  most 
desired  by  the  people  were  followed  out.  All  evidence 
taken,  no  matter  wdiat  the  bias  of  the  particular  wit- 
ness, showed  that  the  masses  of  the  people  are  ignorant, 
credulous,  and  childlike,  and  that  under  any  govern- 
ment the  electoral  franchise  must  be  very  limited 
because  the  large  majority  will  not  for  a  long  time 
be  capable  of  exercising  it  independently.  As  the  Com- 
mission reported  :  "  From  all  the  information  we  can 
get,  it  seems  clear  that  a  great  majority  of  the  people 
long  for  peace  and  are  entirely  w^illing  to  accept  the 


350  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

establishment  of  a  government  under  the  supremacy 
of  the  United  States." 

The  establishment  of  civil  government  in  the  Phil- 
ippines dates  from  the  time  when  the  United  States 
Philippine  Commission  assumed  legislative  functions, 
September  1,  1000.  This  was  an  important  step,  for  it 
permitted  the  organization  of  numicipal  and  provincial 
governments,  and  of  the  various  governmental  bureaus, 
many  of  which  had  their  work  already  mapped  out. 
The  chief  executive  was  still  the  commanding  general, 
and  the  Commission  remained,  until  later  congressional 
action,  a  civil  body  expressing  the  will  of  the  President 
and  acting  under  military  auspices. 

During  the  rest  of  this  year,  1900,  and  the  first  part 
of  the  following  year,  while  the  American  army  was 
contending  with  the  insurgents,  the  commissioners  were 
investigating  conditions,  making  laws,  establishing  addi- 
tional bureaus,  providing  for  highways,  bridges,  and  har- 
Ijor  improvements,  organizing  a  judicial  system,  and  in 
general  picking  up  the  remnants  which  had  been  left 
by  the  Spaniards  and  creating  out  of  them  by  the  addi- 
tion of  new  material  and  modern  ideas  a  governmental 
system  on  American  lines. 

A  second  important  step  toward  the  realization  of 
civil  rule  hi  the  Islands  was  taken  July  4,  1901, 
when  civil  executive  power  in  the  pacified  provinces 
was  transferred  from  the  military  governor,  General 
MacArthur,  to  Judge  Taft,  who  became  civil  governor. 
A  short  two  months  later,  September  1,  a  third  step 


GOVERNMENT 


351 


was  taken,  when  at  the  beginning  of  its  second  legis- 
lative year  there  were  added  to  the  Commission  three 
Filipino  members  appointed  by  the  President,  Senores 
Pardo  de  Tavera,  Benito  Legarda,  and  Jose  Luzuriaga. 
In  the  same  month  the  administrative  duties  were  dis- 
tributed   among   the    four  American  members  of  the 


Amu>u   Tin:   I'lXEs,   m:ai;   .Slmmek   Cai'ital,   JJknc.iet 

Commission  who  became  heads  of  executive  departments: 
Commissioner  Worcester,  of  the  interior ;  Commissioner 
Wright,  of  commerce  and  police ;  Commissioner  Ide,  of 
justice  and  finance ;  and  Commissioner  Moses,  of  public 
instruction.  The  salary  of  each  was  to  be  ten  thou- 
sand dollars,  in  addition  to  the  five  thousand  dollars 
which  each  received  as  a  member  of  the  Commission; 
the  salary  of  the  governor  was  fixed  at  fifteen  thousand 


352  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

dollars,  besides  the  seventy-five  hundi-ed  dollars  which 
he  received  as  president  of  the  Commission. 

From  July  4,  1901,  to  July  1,  1902,  the  Commission, 
with  its  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  functions, 
continued  to  act  as  the  governing  body  for  the  Islands, 
by  virtue  of  the  authority  granted  it  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  On  this  later  date  the  action  of 
the  President  in  appointing  the  Commission  was  rati- 
fied by  Congress  in  an  act  to  provide  temporarily  for 
the  administration  of  civil  government  in  the  Philip- 
pines and  for  other  pm^poses.  This  congressional  action 
marked  another  important  epoch  in  the  affairs  of  the 
archipelago,  as  it  placed  a  limit  on  the  President's 
power  by  restricting  the  exercise  of  his  authority,  as 
far  as  the  Philippines  are  concerned,  to  conform  to 
this  legislative  act.  His  appointments  must  be  con- 
firmed b}'  the  Senate,  and  his  policy  with  regard  to  the 
administration  of  the  Islands  is  to  an  extent  dictated 
by  this  legislative  measure.  By  it  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission is  made  the  legislature  for  the  Islands  and  yet 
is  also  limited  in  the  exercise  of  its  functions.  Thus 
the  Islands  are  actually  governed  by  the  people  of 
the  United  States  through  Congress,  for  which  body 
the  War  Department  in  administering  the  affairs  of  the 
archipelago  acts  through  its  secretary.  In  the  near 
future,  now  that  the  census  has  been  taken,  and  pro- 
vided that  the  present  state  of  pacification  in  the  Islands 
continues,  —  conditions  precedent  to  the  taking  of  these 
further  steps, — another  legislative  body,  the  Philippine 


GOVERNMENT  353 

Assembly,  is  to  be  established  with  a  membership  of 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred,  composed  of  representatives 
from  each  province ;  and  two  resident  commissioners 
are  to  be  stationed  in  Washington. 

The  essentially  different  natures  of  the  two  systems 
of  government,  the  former  Spanish  and  the  present 
American,  are  emphasized  by  a  hrief  comparison  of 
the  two.  At  the  outset  we  see  a  distinct  separation  of 
state,  church,  and  military  interests  under  the  present 
rule, —  a  condition  which  was  never  found  to  exist 
under  the  former  regime,  with  the  result  that  we  have 
seen.  Under  the  Spanish  rule  all  three  functions  of  gov- 
ernment were  exercised  by  the  governor  general,  who 
was  appointed  by  the  crown  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  minister  of  the  colonies.  The  people  enjoyed  no 
representation  in  this  rule ;  the  provincial  governors,  all 
of  whom  were  Spanish,  acted  as  administrative  agents 
of  the  governor  general,  and  even  the  municipal  officials 
were  influenced  and  controlled  by  this  central  authority. 
No  such  thing  as  representatives  of  the  people  sharing 
this  power  of  the  governor  general  was  known  ;  such 
a  body  as  a  native  congress  which  should  have  a  share 
in  legislating  for  the  Islands  never  existed ;  and  native 
participation  in  affairs  of  government  in  any  degree 
resembling  home  rule  was  always  out  of  the  question. 
Under  the  present  American  scheme,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  governing  body  itself  is  composed  partly  of  Filipinos  ; 
the  majority  of  the  provincial  governors  are  natives;  the 
chief  justice  and  certain  other  members  of  the  Supreme 


354  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Court  are  likewise  Filipinos,  and  so  also  are  A'arious 
heads  of  the  departments  of  government;  the  judges  of 
the  courts  of  first  instance  ior  the  different  districts  are 
largely  native  born,  as  are  all  the  local  justices  without 
exception;  and  the  municipal  officials,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  health  officer  in  certain  places,  are 
always  Filipinos.  Wherever  the  opportunity  presents 
itself  the  natives  are  given  a  certain  hand  in  the  gov- 
ernment ;  election  of  municipal  and  provincial  officers  is 
by  popular  vote ;  and  soon,  as  we  have  noted,  a  popular 
assembly  at  the  capital  will  share  with  the  present 
legislative  body  the  power  of  governing. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  four  departments  of 
government  already  mentioned,  the  first  important  work 
to  be  taken  up  by  the  Commission  was  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  various  bureaus,  chief  among  which  was 
the  civil  service  board,  through  the  efforts  of  which  a 
more  ideal  system  of  civil  service  exists  in  the  Islands 
than  is  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  All  offices 
and  nearly  all  positions  in  the  insular  service  are  classi- 
fied, i.e.  are  to  be  filled  through  examination  and  certi- 
fication by  the  board,  whose  action  is  always  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  governor.  The  principal  excep- 
tions are  in  the  case  of  judges  and  heads  of  a  few  of  the 
bureaus,  and  by  later  amendments  many  of  the  latter, 
which  had  been  formerly  excepted,  were  included  within 
the  rules  of  the  service.  The  law  provides  that  pref- 
erence in  appointment  shall  be  given  first  to  natives  of 
the  Philipj^ines,  and  secondly  to  honorably  discharged 


GOVERNMENT  355 

soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines  of  the  United  States,  —  a 
preference  that  is  being  observed  wherever  applicants 
of  these  classes  are  found  by  examination  to  possess  the 
necessary  qualifications. 

The  merit  system,  upon  which  this  civil  service  law 
has  been  based,  has  operated  in  a  way  to  exclude  the 
exercise  of  favoritism  and  to  give  to  the  Filipino  people 
a  larger  measure  of  real  liberty  and  an  opportunity  for 
participation  in  the  affairs  of  government.  The  chances 
for  promotion  to  vacancies  of  a  higher  grade,  including 
the  heads  of  the  departments,  offer  an  incentive  to 
enter  the  puljlic  service  and  furnish  a  practical  demon- 
stration of  the  declared  purpose  of  our  government  in 
assuming  charge  of  the  Philippines. 

A  bureau  of  puljlic  health  —  under  which  have  been 
organized  thirty-six  provincial  boards  and  more  than 
three  hundred  municipal  ones,  in  all  of  which  the  native 
members  are  in  the  majority,  —  has  been  established. 
Its  field  is  perhaps  the  most  important  in  the  Islands, 
where  such  a  careful  inspection  of  health  conditions  is 
always  necessary ;  in  Manila  particularly,  where  alone 
some  four  hundred  officials  carry  on  the  work,  splendid 
results  have  been  accomplished. 

Bmeaus  of  forestry  and  mining  have  also  l:»een  estal> 
lished  to  take  charge  of  the  extensive  interests  involved  in 
a  forest'  area  of  some  seventy-three  million  acres,  and  in 
the  various  gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines,  many  of  which 
had  been  opened  under  the  Spanish  administration,  and 
numerous  others  by  Americans  immediately  afterward. 


356  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

A  bureau  of  the  first  significance  is  that  of  public 
lands,  "vvhich  has  the  important  work  of  adjusting  land 
titles.  No  attempt  was  made  by  the  Spanish  authorities 
to  settle  this  question  of  land  tenure  until  the  late  date 
of  1880,  at  which  time  a  law  was  passed  changing  simple 
possession  to  legal  ownership,  and  thus  placing  j^roperty 
upon  a  solid  basis  and  enabling  the  inhabitants  to  enjoy 
all  the  l)enefits  Avhich  result  from  the  security  of  prop- 
erty rights.  The  adjustment  effected  by  this  law,  how- 
ever, was  very  imperfect,  and  many  of  the  natives,  if 
not  the  majority,  who  cultivated  the  soil  remained  real 
squatters.  To-day  it  is  practically  impossible  to  make 
transfers  on  account  of  the  insecurity  of  the  titles,  and 
hence  investment  is  not  yet  safe.  The  successful  solu- 
tion of  this  question  of  land  ownership  is  closely  related 
to  the  healthy  economic  future  of  the  Islands. 

The  bm-eau  of  agriculture  is  likewise  of  primary 
importance,  for,  as  we  know,  these  various  peoples  are 
essentially  agriculturists,  and  the  chief  wealth  of  the 
Islands  has  in  the  past  come  from  the  products  of  the 
soil,  as  it  promises  to  come  in  the  futm-e.  This  indus- 
try, nevertheless,  has  been  carried  on  in  a  very  primitive 
fashion,  and  it  remains  for  the  department  to  introduce 
modern  scientific  methods,  — a  work  which  it  is  begin- 
ning to  do  by  carrying  on  investigations  and  experi- 
ments, distributing  seeds  and  bulletins,  and  establishing 
modern  farms  for  instruction  in  improving  cultivation. 

A  weather  bureau  and  bureaus  of  geodetic  survey 
and  coast  guard  and  transportation  are  among  the  other 


GOVERNMENT  357 

important  departments  established.  In  addition  to 
these  are  the  burean  of  ethnological  snrvey,  of  posts, 
which  has  an  organization  that  is  exceedingly  efficient, 
in  view  of  the  transportation  difficulties  in  the  Islands ; 
and  the  bureau  of  Philippine  constabulary,  or  colonial 
militia,  which  was  created  by  an  act  of  Congress,  and 
which  has  accepted  from  the  military  authorities  the 
responsibility  of  maintaining  peace  in  all  the  provinces 
that  have  been  organized  under  civil  rule. 

Under  the  department  of  finance  and  justice  have 
been  established  the  bureaus  of  the  insular  treasury 
and  the  insular  auditor,  the  work  of  which  has  brought 
about  a  radical  change  for  the  better  in  the  collection 
of  taxes  and  revenues  and  the  accounting  for  public 
funds.  Since  its  institution,  without  as  yet  any  increase 
in  the  tax  rate,  the  taxes  have  produced  double  what 
they  did  in  the  best  years  of  the  former  administra- 
tion. Rigid  control  of  the  expenditures  of  the  various 
bureaus,  proper  systems  of  auditing  and  accounting,  and 
a  reorganization  of  the  principal  receiving  departments, 
such  as  those  of  the  customs  and  the  internal  revenues, 
since  these  features  stand  in  such  contrast  to  what  was 
true  formerly,  have  impressed  the  Filipinos  of  the  office- 
holding  class  deeply ;  the  increased  amount  of  receipts 
is  actually  a  surprise  to  them  ;  and  the  result  of  all  this 
cannot  but  have  a  beneficial  effect.  Official  extortion 
is  not  possible  under  the  present  system  and,  although 
there  is  still  a  weak  spot  in  municipal  expenditure 
which  needs  to  be  cured,  general  abuses  such  as  were 


358  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

the  subject  of  complaint  of  the  taxpayers  at  one  time 
are  to-day  impossible. 

Directly  under  the  treasurer  of  the  archipelago  is  a 
force  of  provincial  treasurers,  all  Americans,  who  in 
person  or  through  responsible  deputies  collect  all  public 
taxes  and  revenues,  even  municipal  licenses,  except  such 
as  are  received  from  day  to  day  in  the  various  towns, 
which  cannot  be  attended  to  by  a  monthly  visit  on  the 
part  of  tlie  treasurer.  Everywhere  except  in  the  mu- 
nicipalities public  moneys  are  handled  by  Americans, 
as  it  has  seemed  inadvisable  as  yet  to  add  this  further 
responsibility  to  the  native  officials ;  and  unfortunately 
the  experience  with  certain  of  the  local  presidentes  has 
proved  the  wisdom  of  this  step.  Unaccustomed  as  the 
natives  are  to  handling  these  funds,  it  will  require  the 
same  sort  of  training  in  financial  as  in  other  matters 
before  they  are  able  to  look  after  such  receipts  and 
expenditures  without  the  oversight  of  American  officials. 

A  judicial  system,  comprehensive  in  its  scope,  is  in 
operation,  comprising  the  Supreme  Court  with  a  Fili- 
pino chief  justice  and  six  associates,  three  of  Avhom  are 
also  natives ;  a  series  of  courts  of  first  instance  holding 
session  in  the  different  judicial  districts  of  the  archi- 
pelago, in  some  of  which  Filipinos  preside,  and  in 
others  Americans ;  and  a  justice  of  the  peace  court  in 
every  municipality  in  which  there  is  a  court  of  first 
instance.  All  justices  of  the  peace  are  Filipinos.  Besides 
this  regular  judicial  system  there  are  additional  muni- 
cipal and  land  courts,  and  a  court  of  customs  appeals. 


GOVERNMENT  359 

Allied  to  this  judicial  organization  is  the  bureau  of 
justice  with  the  attorney-general  and  his  assistants,  the 
solicitor  general,  a  Filipino,  and  the  various  provincial 
fiscals,  all  of  whom  are  also  Fili23inos. 

The  bureaus  of  customs  and  immigration,  of  internal 
revenue,  and  of  banks,  banking,  coinage,  and  currency 
comprise  a  most  important  department  of  the  govern- 
ment, including,  as  it  does,  the  sources  of  income  of 
the  Insular  Government,  which  is  dependent  upon  the 
revenue  of  the  Islands  for  its  suj)port. 

The  government  has  established  laboratories,  a  neces- 
sary adjunct  to  the  Imreau  of  public  health,  and  a 
department  where  scientific  investigation  of  microbe 
activity  and  its  relation  to  human,  animal,  and  vege- 
table life  in  the  archipelago,  is  carried  on. 

The  department  of  public  instruction,  finally,  includ- 
ing the  bureaus  of  education,  public  charities,  public 
libraries  and  museums,  statistics,  public  records,  print- 
ing, and  architecture  and  construction,  completed  this 
first  work  of  setting  in  operation  the  civil-government 
machine. 

By  the  organization  of  these  different  departments 
an  important  work  was  finished,  since  the  various  needs 
of  government,  which  suffered  so  seriously  by  their  long 
abandonment  during  the  period  of  military  operations, 
now  received  attention,  and  matters  began  to  move 
again  under  the  leadership  of  efficient  Americans.  Dur- 
ing all  this  time,  moreover,  the  Commission  was  busily 
engaged  in   continuing  its  Avork  of  investigation  and 


360  THE  PHILIITJNE    1SLA^'1)S 

meeting  deputations  of  Filipinos,  in  carrying  on  hear- 
ings, in  passing  various  legislative  acts  to  meet  the 
most  urgent  demands  at  the  time,  in  drawing  up  pro- 
vincial and  municipal  codes  for  the  estaljlishment  of 
these  more  local  governments,  and  in  studying  other 
immediate  needs  of  the  Islands. 

Preparatory  to  the  promulgation  of  a  provincial  code 
which  should  form  the  basis  of  government,  tlie  number 
of  the  provinces  and  the  size  of  each  were  determined, 
largely  by  geographical  considerations.  In  some  cases 
in  the  larger  islands  convenient  mountain  ranges  and 
rivers  were  constituted  the  boundary  of  the  particular 
province ;  and  in  other  smaller  islands  single  provinces 
were  established.  The  insular  and  mountainous  aspects 
of  the  country  and  the  mixed  and  ignorant  character 
of  the  people  necessitated  a  centralized  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  even  under  American  rule  the  degree  of 
self-government  in  the  provinces  had  of  necessity  to 
be  a  limited  one. 

The  general  act  for  the  organization  of  provincial 
governments  was  passed  early  in  1001,  after  the  Com- 
mission had  met  the  representatives  of  the  various 
provinces  on  a  tour  of  inspection  and  inquiry.  Thirty- 
four  provinces  have  since  been  regularly  organized  and 
administered  hy  the  native  governors  with  marked 
success,  particularly  in  certain  instances. 

The  two  purposes  of  these  provincial  governments 
are,  first,  the  collection  of  taxes  through  a  provincial 
treasurer   who   is   the   common   agent  of   the   central, 


GOVERNMENT 


361 


provincial,  and  municipal  governments ;  and,  secondly, 
internal  improvements.  A  further  function  lies  in  the 
supervision  of  the  police  of  the  provinces  and  the 
conduct  of  the  municipalities. 

The  personnel  of  the  provincial  government  consists 
of  five  officers,  provincial  governor,  secretary,  treasurer, 
supervisor,  and  fiscal  or  prosecuting  attorney.  The  real 
governing  body,  however,  is  composed  of  the  governor. 


Provincial  Officials  of  Ilocos  Norte 

treasurer,   and    supervisor,    forming   a    sort   of   triple- 
headed  executive  power. 

The  governor  is  the  chief  executive  and  as  such  in 
a  certain  sense  has  charge  of  the  municipalities,  which 
he  is  obliged  to  visit  twice  in  the  year,  and  is  in  control 
of  the  police  power.  He  is  elected  biennially  by  the 
municipal  councilors  in  convention.  Of  these  provin- 
cial heads  twenty-nine  are  Filipinos  and  five  Americans. 


302  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

The  secretary  acts  as  the  recordmg  officer  for  the 
governing  board,  l)ut  has  no  vote  in  it.  He  is  appointed 
by  the  Commission  under  civil  service  rules  which 
require  him  to  be  able  to  speak  and  write  Spanish.  The 
provincial  secretaries  are  without  exception  Filipinos. 

The  treasurer  is,  as  has  been  said,  the  collector  of 
revenues  for  all  branches  of  the  government.  He  is 
appointed  by  the  Commission,  also  under  civil  service 
rules,  and  is  required  to  give  a  large  bond  as  security. 
All  of  these  officials  are  Americans  and,  it  seems,  must 
be  for  some  time  to  come. 

Tlie  supervisor  has  charge  of  roads,  bridges,  and 
internal  improvements ;  he  is  appointed  by  the  Com- 
mission in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  tlie  civil  service, 

*  .   .  . 

and  must  be  a  civil  engineer  and  surveyor.    All  these 

are  Americans,  though  their  assistants  and  agents  in 
the  different  municipalities  are  natives. 

Tlie  fiscal,  likewise  appointed  hy  the  central  gov- 
ernment, is  llie  attorney  for  the  governing  board  and 
prosecuting  attorney  for  the  provinces.  He  must  be 
a  member  of  the  Philippine  bar,  and  must  be  able  to 
speak  and  write  Spanish.  All  of  the  provincial  fiscals 
are  Filipinos.  After  January,  1906,  English  is  to  be 
substituted  for  Spanish  in  this  requirement  affecting 
these  various  officials. 

Thus  the  ruling  body  of  the  provinces,  that  is,  the 
governing  board,  is  made  up  of  a  chief  executive  chosen 
every  two  years  by  the  local  governing  bodies  of  the 
various  towns;  the  treasurer,  who  is  a  classified  bonded 


GOVERNMENT  363 

officer,  always  an  American,  and  a  man  versed  in  finan- 
cial matters ;  and  a  supervisor,  who  must  be  a  profes- 
sional engineer,  and  hence,  for  some  time  to  come,  an 
American.  The  majority  of  the  members  of  the  board, 
that  is,  two  out  of  the  three,  are  Americans,  and  thus, 
in  theory,  provincial  affairs  are  under  American  control. 

The  act  establishing  various  provinces  is  so  framed,  in 
theory  at  least,  that  a  governor  who  is  capable  and  ener- 
getic can  do  much  good  ;  and  also,  that  one  who  is  inca- 
pable or  not  well  intentioned  cannot  do  much  harm.  In 
practice,  however,  these  theoretical  qualities  sometimes 
do  not  possess  great  value,  and  in  spite  of  the  American 
majority  as  a  check,  an  inefficient  native  governor  has 
it  in  his  power  to  do  a  considerable  amount  of  evil. 
Fortunately  only  one  or  two  of  the  provinces  have 
shown  this  possibility  to  be  true,  and  with  this  small 
exception  the  native  governors  as  a  class  have  mani- 
fested Ijoth  real  ability  and  an  appreciation  and  proper 
use  of  their  jDower,  and  by  the  results  which  have  been 
gained  during  their  short  periods  of  incumbency  have 
proved  themselves  efficient  heads  of  these  important 
political  divisions. 

In  establishing  this  system  of  provincial  government 
the  Commission  provided  a  further  check  upon  the  prov- 
inces by  granting  the  central  government  the  power  to 
veto  the  selection  of  a  governor,  or  after  such  selection 
to  suspend  him  should  there  be  reasons  for  suspecting 
his  loyalty,  should  he  be  proved  guilty  of  dishonest 
practices,  or  for  other  sufficient  reasons. 


304  THE  PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

Provincial  government  in  the  Philippines,  it  is  to  be 
noted,  corresponds  more  closely  to  our  county  than 
to  our  state  administration.  It  is  at  best  only  a  sem- 
blance of  self-government,  and  yet  in  view  of  such  facts 
as  to  the  character  of  the  people,  especially  their  inca- 
pacity for  self-government,  as  have  already  been  set 
forth  here,  the  only  wise  policy  for  the  Commission 
was  to  keep  the  control  of  affairs  firmly  in  its  own 
hands.  In  the  practical  operation  of  this  provincial 
governmental  machine  it  is  to  be  feared  that  various 
governors,  who  are  neither  loyal  nor  incorruptible,  will 
remain  in  office.  In  participation  in  provincial  affairs 
the  natives  have  reached,  if  indeed  they  have  not 
passed  Ijeyond,  the  limit  of  their  capacity  to  legislate 
wisely,  and  the  granting  of  even  the  degree  of  power 
which  we  have  given  to  these  native  governors  is  a 
liberal  step  to  say  the  least,  the  prudence  of  which 
we  can  judge  only  in  later  years  when,  after  things 
have  been  nmning  in  working  order  for  some  time, 
the  consciousness  of  strict  surveillance  by  the  central 
government  will  not  be  felt  so  strongly.  Yet  it  must 
be  said  that  results  to  date  are  exceedingly  promising. 
The  whole  scheme  is  a  distinct  advancement  over  the 
Spanish  plan  of  provincial  rule  and  one  that  well 
satisfies  both  American  philanthropists  and  Filipino 
patriots ;  native  executives  with  authority  that  savors 
something  of  real  sovereignty  are  now  realities ;  and 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  posts  of  treasurer  and 
supervisor   from   being  filled   likewise   by  Filipinos   as 


GOVERNMENT  365 

soon  as  they  are  able  to  demonstrate  their  fitness  for 
holding  such  positions. 

This  general  scheme  of  government  was  further 
elaborated  by  the  enactment,  early  in  1901,  of  a  muni- 
cipal code  under  which  the  local  governments  through- 
out the  archipelago  were  organized.  Mention  was 
made  previously  of  the  inauguration  of  civil  muni- 
cipal government  under  the  direction  of  the  military 
authority  by  virtue  of  general  orders  issued  in  1899 
and  1900.  Comparatively  few  towns,  however,  had 
been  organized  under  these  orders  before  the  Commis- 
sion began  to  exercise  its  legislative  functions ;  and  it 
postponed  further  action  upon  any  general  plan  of  local 
administration  until  the  following  year,  when  the  code 
was  passed. 

By  this  nuinicipal  code  the  natives  have  in  the  main 
the  same  control  over  their  local  affairs  as  is  enjoyed 
by  residents  of  towns  of  corresponding  size  in  the 
United  States ;  it  is  like  a  blanket  charter  for  small 
cities  in  our  country,  adapted  to  the  special  conditions 
existing  there.  It  has  been  translated  into  Spanish, 
Tagalog,  Visayan,  Bicol,  and  Ilocano,  and  distributed 
to  the  people,  and  as  amended  is  now  in  operation  in 
about  seven  hundred  towns. 

The  government  of  each  municipality  is  vested  in  a 
president,  a  vice  president,  and  a  municipal  council,  all 
of  whom  are  chosen  at  large  by  qualified  electors  of  the 
towns  for  a  two  years'  term  of  office.  According  to 
population  the  various  municipalities  are  divided  into 


306  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

four  classes,  each  class  entitled  to  a  certain  number  of 
councilors,  as  follows  :  (1)  25,000  or  more,  18  councilors; 
(2)  18,000  to  25,000, 14  councilors;  (3)  10,000  to  18,000, 
10  councilors;  (4)  10,000  and  less,  8  councilors. 

The  electorate  is  limited  to  those  who  speak  and 
write  Spanish  or  English,  who  pay  a  tax  of  fifteen  dol- 
lars a  year,  or  who  have  filled  municipal  offices. 

Although  the  municipal  laws  were  drawn  up  on  the 
same  general  plan  as  those  of  the  United  States,  some 
of  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  Spanish  system 
were  also  preserved,  particularly  the  custom  of  the 
town  president  or  mayor  presiding  over  the  meetings 
of  the  council  and  in  tlie  case  of  a  tie  casting  the 
deciding  vote.  He  also  enjoys  a  veto  power  which  can 
be  overruled  only  hy  a  two  thirds'  majority  of  the  mu- 
nicipal council.  The  powers  of  the  president  or  mayor 
in  general  are  almost  those  of  a  person  holding  a  similar 
position  here  in  the  United  States;  in  his  absence  the 
vice  president  assumes  charge  of  the  affairs  of  govern- 
ment ;  the  councilors  are  elected  from  among  their 
townspeople  by  popular  vote ;  and  thus  the  municipali- 
ties enjo}"  to  a  great  extent  autonomy  in  local  matters. 
Althougli  wide  powers  of  initiative  are  thus  given  to 
the  towns  and  although  they  are  practically  independent 
in  managing  their  own  affairs,  a  strict  supervisory  con- 
trol is  retained  by  the  Insular  Government,  especially 
in  matters  relating  to  sanitation,  education,  and  police 
powers;  the  provincial  governor,  further,  has  the  power 
to  suspend  any  one  suspected  of  malfeasance  in  office; 


GOVERNMENT 


367 


and  the  treasurer  of  the  province  has  charge  of   the 
taxes  and  supervises  all  municipal  accounts. 

That  local  self-government  as  far  as  was  possible  was 
given  to  these  towns  is  shown  especially  in  the  matter 
of  local  expenditures,  for  there  is  little  or  no  control 
outside  of  the  municipal  council  over  the  disposition 
of  municipal  funds.    By  experience  already  gained  the 


Municipal  Officials 

saving  feature  of  what  seems  to  be  almost  too  great 
a  degree  of  liberty  in  this  system  of  local  administra- 
tion is  the  quarterly  examination  of  accounts  by  the 
provincial  treasurer  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
whether  all  revenues  are  properly  accounted  for  and 
are  expended  for  the  public  weal  and  not  for  private 
or  sectarian  purposes. 


308  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

As  is  the  case  in  the  provincial  governments,  a  fair 
judgment  of  the  efficiency  of  these  town  organizations 
can  be  given  better  after  a  somewhat  longer  period 
of  time  has  elapsed  and  the  period  of  trial  has  ended; 
yet  outside  of  the  handling  of  public  funds  for  which 
the  local  authorities  have  not  yet  been  trained,  the 
municipal  administrative  machine  is  beginning  to  run 
smoothly,  the  people  take  an  interest  in  its  operation, 
a  feeling  of  satisfaction  is  perceptible  among  them,  and 
a  certain  degree  of  efficiency  that  is  quite  hopeful  is 
being  attained  by  the  local  administrators. 

Thus  step  by  step,  under  the  gravest  difficulties,  the 
foundations  have  been  laid  for  a  fully  developed  struc- 
ture of  civil  government,  to  be  realized  later.  From  the 
awful  chaos  of  affairs  in  the  Islands  and  the  complexity 
of  questions  and  duties,  incapable  of  imagination  at 
this  distance,  the  Commission  has  evolved  a  system  of 
order  and  plans  of  detail,  all  of  which  have  been  very 
largely  put  into  execution.  At  the  same  time  that 
it  created  the  municipal  and  provincial  codes  and  the 
various  departments  of  government,  a  multitude  of 
other  measures,  such  as  the  incorporation  of  the  city 
of  Manila,  a  code  of  civil  procedure  for  the  Islands,  and 
new  tariff  provisions,  occupied  its  attention. 

More  civil  government  has  been  established  over  a 
greater  extent  of  territory  than  the  leading  Filipinos 
themselves  thought  Avise.  So  far  as  has  been  possible, 
the  Commission  has  brought  the  nati\'es  themselves  into 
active  governmental  relations,  and  in  its  appointments 


GOYERXMEXT 


169 


has  given  the  Filipino  first  consideration  whenever  it 
was  possible  to  do  so.  Several  former  insurgent  generals 
and  other  sympathizers  with  the  movement  have  been 
appointed  to  positions  of  trust  and  responsibility,  and 
with  good  effect,  for  the  appointees  are  anxious  to  do 
their  duty,  and  they  do  it.  The  plans  in  this  general 
scheme  of  administration  have  been  as  wise  as  human 


Palace  in  Walled  City:  the  Seat  oe  Government 

good  will  and  the  best  ability  obtainable  could  make 
them ;  and  an  expression  of  American  good  feeling 
such  as  has  never  before  been  displayed  in  any  colo- 
nial work  has  Ijeen  given  these  people.  No  suggestion 
from  the  home  government  has  influenced  in  any  way 
the  appointments  in  the  Islands,  and  the  fairness 
with  which  they  have  been  made  has  invohmtarily 
elicited  respect  from  the  masses  of  Filipinos  who  were 


370 


THE  PHILIPPINE  I8LAXDS 


watching  this  work  of  civil  reconstruction.  As  time 
goes  on  a  certain  feeling  of  confidence  which  the  more 
intelligent  Filipinos  begin  to  experience  increases  and 
finds  frequent  expression.    The  views  of  this  class  may 


IIOTKL    OlUEXTK,     NOW     (ioVERNMKXT    OlFICK    lUlLDIXG 

be  seen  from  the  following  extracts  froui  opinions  which 
have  come  from  the  three  Filipino  members  of  the 
Commission,  and  may  be  taken  for  w^hat  they  are  worth, 
—  in  any  event,  they  represent  the  attitude  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  thinking  inhabitants  to-da}'. 
Sehor  Tavera  wrote : 

The  promises  of  the  lamented  President,  Mr.  McKinley,  that 
America  comes  to  the  Philippines  to  aid  them,  and  to  give  them 
the  principles  of  free  government  which  rule  the  United  States 
and  make  it  great,  are  being  fulfilled.  The  complete  autonomy 
wliicli  the  municipalities  now  have  could  not  be  —  I  do  not  say 
"proposed"  —  even  hinted  at  imder  the  former  regime.  Fili- 
pinos are  convinced  that  the  era  of  justice  has  begun. 

Senor  Legarda  said : 

The  autonomy  now  enjoyed  by  the  pueblos  organized  under 
the  provisions  of  the  municipal  code,  promulgated  by  the  United 
States  Philippine  Commission,  could  not  be  more  liberal.  Never 
have  the  Filipinos  enjoyed  such  equal  riglits,  either  under 
Spanish  rule  or  under  the  short-lived  Malolos  government. 


GOVERNMENT 


371 


The  right  of  suffrage  as  exercised  to-day  is  an  entirely  new 
thing  to  the  Filipinos.  So  also  is  the  exercise  of  all  the  indi- 
vidual rights  which  they  enjoy  under  the  American  flag ;  and  it 
is  only  those  who  obstinately  refuse  to  see  what  is  taking  place 
under  their  very  eyes — those  incorrigible  obstructionists  who 
oppose  all  civilization  and  progress,  and  systematically  find  fault 
with  every  measure  that  the  American  government  has  proposed 
to  carry  out  in  these  Islands  — •  who  will  deny  the  rapid  advance 
that  has  been  achieved  here  in  so  short  a  time,  not  by  restricting 
liberty,  but  by  extending  it,  and  by  fostering  public  education 
everywhere. 

All  the  above-mentioned  advantages,  coupled  with  the  added 
value  which   necessarily  pertains  to  all  rights  guaranteed  by  a 


Company  of  Philippine  Constabulary  under  Command 
OF  American  Inspector,  Cuyo 

strong  and  stable  government,  we  in  this  archipelago  have 
enjoyed  since  the  day  that  it  pleased  Providence  to  plant  the 
American  flag  on  our  soil.  Even  though  many  Filipinos  cannot 
for  the  present  appreciate  these  advantages  for  the  reason  that 
the  ravages  of  war  —  cruel  and  bloody  in  some  of  the  districts 


372  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

of  the  archipelago,  but  now  happily  drawing  to  a  close  —  are 
still  too  obvious,  it  is  hoped  that  in  time  these  evils  will  be 
forgotten  and  that  they  will  then  be  convinced  of  the  sincerity 
of  the  American  government. 

And  Serior  Luzuriaga  added  : 

As  a  result  of  the  authority  of  the  United  States  we  have  to 
acknowledge  the  great  benefits  that  peace  and  all  its  wholesome 
and  profitable  conditions  have  brought  to  the  provinces  as  well 
as  to  the  pueblos  under  civil  rule,  where,  aside  from  the  advan- 
tages of  the  municipal  autonomy  and  the  provincial  regime, 
the  administration  of  justice  is  speedy  and  upright.  Moreover, 
schools  have  been  so  organized  that  the  Americanization  of  this 
country  will  be  an  accomplished  fact  within  a  few  years  if  all 
elements  join,  as  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  will,  for  the  purpose  of 
accomplishing  this  meritorious  work  in  favor  of  the  culture  and 
welfare  of  these  peoples. 

So  long  as  abnormal  conditions  exist  it  does  not  appear  to  me 
that  it  would  be  prudent  or  politic  to  introduce  any  change  in 
the  established  government  of  these  Islands. 

The  first  great  work  in  connection  with  this  civil 
machine — its  establishment  —  has  been  accomplished; 
the  developing  and  perfecting  of  its  operation  remain 
as  fnrther  prol^lems.  As  to  the  whole  there  is  no  doubt 
of  the  quality  and  the  results,  and  experience  will  be 
the  means  of  remedying  minor  defects.  The  develop- 
ment of  this  system  will  he  further  hastened  by  the 
formation  of  the  Philippine  Assembly,  and  with  it,  as 
an  added  element  in  the  Insular  Government,  popular 
rule  on  an  even  more  extensive  scale  than  obtains  now 
will  be  the  result. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
EDUCATION 

The  story  of  educational  development  in  the  Philip- 
pines rightly  begins  with  the  advent  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors  and  their  religious  companions,  whose  early 
activities  we  have  just  discussed ;  for  though  certain 
enthusiastic  investigators  are  confirmed  in  the  opinion 
that  a  native  written  language  and  literature  existed 
among  the  different  tribes  previous  to  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards,  the  only  fair  conclusion  to  be  deduced 
from  the  weight  of  reliable  evidence  is  that,  with  the 
exception  of  a  written  alphabet  of  Arabian  origin  known 
to  the  Moros  and  possibly  to  those  peoples  of  Luzon  and 
the  Visayas  with  which  these  Mohammedans  came  into 
contact  by  their  inroads  into  the  northern  islands,  learn- 

* 

ing  had  made  no  real  progress  in  the  archipelago.  And 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  some  of  these  early  peoples 
had  already  become  acquainted  with  certain  practices, 
particularly  those  of  an  industrial  nature,  which  we  com- 
monly associate  with  a  condition  of  semicivilization,  even 
this  much  could  not  have  been  true  of  the  majority; 
and  the  missionary  fathers  were  the  true  pioneers  in 
the  education  of  the  inhabitants.  In  treating  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Islands  and  of  the  work  of  the  church  in 

.37.3 


374  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

converting  these  people  to  Christianity,  we  were  able 
to  see  how  rapidly  the  missionary  movement  extended 
and  how  active  became  the  efforts  of  its  agents,  who 
carried  the  word  of  God  into  the  interiors  where  civi- 
lized man  had  never  set  foot.  We  saw,  too,  how  schools 
were  established  in  the  very  wilderness  for  the  purpose 
of  teaching  the  catechism,  explaining  the  faith  which 
seemed  to  have  such  powerful  attraction  for  these 
pagans,  and  making  the  principles  of  the  church  better 
known.  The  masses  who  came  over  to  the  new  creed 
necessitated  the  extension  of  this  school  system,  and  the 
foundino;  of  seminaries  where  natives  could  be  trained 
in  church  doctrine  and  thus  be  fitted  to  preach  the 
new  gospel  to  their  people.  And  this  was  the  beginning 
of  the  school  system  which  w^e  Americans  found  in 
operation  on  our  arrival,  —  a  beginning  founded  upon 
the  necessity  of  extending  the  influence  of  the  church 
and  making  permanent  converts  to  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. During  the  earlier  years  school  training  had  no 
other  object  than  this,  and  naturally  so,  for  even  in 
Spain  at  this  time  education  had  not  yet  branched  out 
into  the  broader  fields ;  only  such  a  system  as  the 
religious  needs  of  the  Islands  demanded  became  estab- 
lished, and  not  for  some  time  were  higher  institutions 
even  of  a  religious  nature  found,  while  a  general 
scheme  of  elementary  schools  somewhat  more  secular 
in  character  never  quite  became  a  reality. 

As  the  church  began  to  be   firmly  established  we 
saw,  however,  that  it  became  conscious  of  the  need  of 


EDUCATION  375 

something  higher  as  a  means  of  training,  and  that  con- 
sequently a  series  of  more  advanced  institutions  than  the 
catechism  schools  of  the  missions  began  to  be  founded :  ^ 
San  Ignacio,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Jesuits ;  Santo  Tomas,  soon 
afterward  in  1611,  in  charge  of  the  Dominicans;  and 
San  Juan  de  Letran,  in  1640,  by  a  philanthropic  Span- 
iard^ and  later  taken  over  by  the  Dominican  fathers.  At 
about  this  time  seminaries  for  the  advanced  education 
of  girls  began  to  spring  up :  Santa  Isabel  in  1632 ; 
Santa  Catalina  in  1696 ;  Beaterio  de  San  Ignacio  in 
1699;  and  Santa  Rosa  somewhat  later  in  1750. 

In  this  way  came  about  the  abnormal  development 
of  the  system  by  the  growth  of  higher  institutions  and 
so-called  colleges,  soon  after  the  establishment  of  the 
strictly  religious  missionary  schools  and  long  before 
anything  like  a  general  scheme  for  real  elementary  edu- 
cation had  been  put  into  effect.  Thus  for  some  two 
centuries  the  work  proceeded  under  the  direction  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  and  was  shaped  to  carry  out 
best  the  ends  of  the  church.  The  scope  of  the  various 
institutions  which  were  established  was,  it  is  true,  en- 
larged from  time  to  time ;  departures  from  the  strict 
study  of  church  dogma  and  Catholic  theology  were 
made  at  various  times,  and  courses  in  science  and  in 
pharmacy  and  medicine^  were  introduced.  From  the 
viewpoint  of  contemporaneous  standards  it  cannot  be 

1  See  chapters  on  history.  2  juan  Geronimo  Guerrero. 

3  University  of  Santo  Tomas. 


376  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

denied  that  work  of  good  quality  was  done,  evidencing 
real  efficiency. 

The  Jesuits  in  particular  were  the  teacher  missionaries 
in  the  Islands,  and  their  el^^orts  more  directly  than 
those  of  any  of  the  other  orders  were  devoted  to  the 
primary  instruction  which  seemed  to  be  so  neglected 
during  these  3'ears.  Had  they  been  allowed  to  remain, 
it  is  possible  that  the  charge  which  can  with  a  consider- 
able degree  of  justification  be  brought  to-day  against 
the  Spanish  administration  —  that  general  elementary 
education  was  too  long  forgotten — would  be  unfounded. 
By  a  decree  of  Charles  III,  however,  they  were  expelled 
from  the  Islands  and  did  not  come  back  until  1859. 
Immediately  upon  their  return  educational  matters, 
which  had  begun  to  lag,  received  a  new  impulse,  and 
additional  agencies  were  created.  These  trained  school- 
men soon  established  the  Ateneo  de  Manila,  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  church  schools  in  the  capital  to-day ; 
and  a  few  years  later,  in  18G5,  they  organized  a  nor- 
mal school  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  primary 
Avork,  which  had  by  this  time  been  taken  in  hand  by 
the  government. 

Just  at  this  time,  too,  additional  higher  institutions 
for  girls  were  founded,  particularly  the  Escuela  de 
Maestras  in  1864  and  the  Colegio  de  la  Inmaculada 
Concepcion  in  1868.  Within  the  next  score  of  years 
seminaries  for  preparing  natives  for  the  priesthood 
were  established  in  the  archdiocese  of  Manila  and  the 
episcopal  seats  of  Vigan,  Nueva  Caceres,  and  Jaro. 


EDUCATION 


377 


During  all  this  time  the  burden  of  carrying  on  the 
work  of  education  fell  ahnost  wholly  upon  the  church, 
and  it  was  likewise  regulated  to  the  interests  of  the 
church.  A  nautical  school,  it  is  true,  had  been  founded 
as  early  as  1620  and  an  academy  of  drawing  and  paint- 
ing very  much  later,  in  1845,  both  outside  of  church 
control ;  but  the  government  itself  made  no  important 


Prize  Scholars  in  Jp:s(:it  School 

move  toward  establishing  a  system  of  secular  educa- 
tion until  1863,  when,  to  fill  the  urgent  need  for  better 
educational  facilities  in  the  Islands,  particularly  in  the 
way  of  a  general  elementary  instruction,  a  royal  decree 
was  passed  providing  for  the  establishment  throughout 
the  archipelago  of  schools  for  primary  teaching,  and 
also  for  the  founding  of  higher  schools  for  secondary 
instruction,    special   schools,    normal   institutions,   and 


378  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

colleges.  According  to  the  decree,  schools  for  girls  as 
well  as  boys  were  to  be  opened,  at  least  one  of  each 
kind  in  every  town ;  common  branches  such  as  read- 
ing, writing,  geography,  history,  arithmetic.  Christian 
doctrine,  Spanish,  agriculture,  and  music  were  included 
in  the  curriculum ;  attendance  was  made  compulsory 
for  those  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  thirteen ;  and 
a  supervising  committee  composed  of  the  governor  gen- 
eral, the  archbishoj),  and  seven  others  was  appointed. 

The  measure  was  indeed  adequate  and  would  have  been 
productive  of  substantial  results  if  carried  out  properly; 
owing,  however,  to  a  small  degree  of  interest  at  the  time 
in  subjects  so  purely  secular,  to  the  inefficiency  of  the 
native  teachers  charged  with  carrying  on  the  work,  and 
to  lax  supervision,  the  purpose  of  the  educators  at  home 
fell  short  of  its  mark.  The  curriculum  was  followed 
only  half-heartedly  by  instructors  who  had  themselves 
received  hardly  sufficient  training  to  instill  confidence 
in  their  own  ability,  with  the  result  that  Christian  doc- 
trine, a  little  reading,  writing,  and  geography,  together 
with  the  elementary  processes  of  arithmetic,  were  all 
that  the  children  usually  had  a  chance  to  learn. 

The  provision  requiring  one  male  and  one  female 
teacher  Avas  not  carried  out ;  and  there  were  no  good 
schoolhouses,  modern  furniture,  or  suitable  text-books. 
The  schools  were  held  in  the  residences  of  teachers  or 
in  buildings  rented  by  the  municipality  and  used  by 
principals  as  dwellings,  in  some  of  which  there  were 
wooden  benches   and  tables,   and   in   others   not    even 


EDUCATION  379 

these.  Very  little  of  the  instruction  outside  of  that 
given  in  a  few  large  towns  was  in  Spanish,  since  the 
majority  of  the  native  teachers  did  not  understand  that 
language ;  and  the  pupils  were  compelled  to  learn 
tediously  by  heart  the  exact  words  of  the  text-book, 
and  then  in  the  manner  of  a  phonograph  they  gave 
back  to  the  teachers  what  they  had  memorized  without 
seeming  to  have  exercised  any  thinking  power.  To 
the  casual  visitor  instruction  by  the  native  master 
seemed  tiringly  mechanical  and  noisy,  hardly  effective 
or  economical,  and  lacking  in  vitalizing  power. 

The  teachers  themselves  were  only  partly  trained,  and 
had  no  opportunity  of  perfecting  themselves  by  attend- 
ing normal  institutes.  They  were  inadequately  com- 
pensated for  their  services,  even  such  as  they  were ; 
therefore  (perhaps  we  should  add),  quality  of  work 
seemed  to  be  less  important  than  quantity,  and  profes- 
sional enthusiasm  was  apparently  absent. 

In  all  this  work  there  was  lacking  a  centralized  sys- 
tem ;  there  w^as  no  definite  guiding  head ;  and  though 
Manila  and  Mindanao  were  subcenters,  they  were  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  and  in  no  close  connection  with 
their  respective  fields.  The  system  lacked  completeness 
and  sufficiency,  and  although  it  is  true  that  at  the  time 
of  the  coming  of  the  Americans  some  2150  public  pri- 
mary schools  were  in  operation,  a  knowledge  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  caiTied  on  in  them  detracts  seriously 
from  the  importance  with  which  such  a  statement  as 
this  might  otherwise  be  received. 


380  THE   PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 

Meanwhile  the  higher  church  institutions  had  become 
well  estal)lished  and  dominated  this  elementary  public- 
school  system.  Higher  education  was  for  the  select 
class;  and  when  a  person  wished  to  pursue  such  a 
course  he  naturally  attended  the  ecclesiastical  schools. 
With  the  more  advanced  colleges  in  existence  so  much 
earlier  than  the  great  majority  of  lower  schools,  the 
tendency  was  to  deny  the  masses  even  a  good  elemen- 
tary education  and  to  center  attention  upon  the  few  who 
were  hurried  to  so-called  colleges  or  universities ;  and 
as  a  result  a  few  persons  among  the  inhabitants  have 
stood  out  as  educated  Filipinos,  while  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  have  either  not  been  educated  at  all  or  only 
up  to  a  certain  point,  —  the  acquisition  of  the  mechani- 
cal processes  of  reading  and  writing.  Whatever  doubts, 
controversies,  and  conflicts  of  views  there  may  be,  the 
American  teachers,  who  have  been  in  a  position  to  make 
careful  observation,  have  but  one  opinion  of  the  train- 
ing heretofore  provided,  and  that  is  briefly  that  the 
Filipino  children  have  been  compelled  to  grow  up  with 
a  meager  outfit  as  far  as  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
schooling  was  concerned. 

Just  as  with  various  nations  in  the  past  there  have 
been  awakenings  in  educational  interest  coincident  with 
political  crises  which  they  have  experienced,  —  Ger- 
many, in  a  measure  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  our 
own  country  after  the  Civil  War,  and  France  after  the 
Franco-Prussian  struggle,  —  which  have  resulted  in 
renew^ed  effort,  additional  vigor,  broader  interpretation, 


EDUCATION  381 

and  new  ideas,  similarly  the  Philippines  after  the  revo- 
lutions of  1896  and  1898  and  through  the  intervention 
of  the  American  government  have  awakened  to  pres- 
ent needs,  and  since  our  coming  have  experienced  an 
enlivened  interest  in  educational  matters.  A  thirst  for 
western  education  was  felt  even  hefore  the  American 
occupation,  and  in  every  revolutionary  propaganda  there 
was  a  provision  for  the  establishment  of  schools  and 
colleges.  Respect  for  learning  is  one  of  the  redeeming 
traits  of  the  oriental,  the  Filipino  being  no  exception ; 
and  under  American  management  education  was  bound 
to  have  a  wider  popular  extension  and  a  broader  and 
more  liberal  character. 

No  clearer  expression  of  the  purposes  of  our  govern- 
ment with  regard  to  the  Philippines  could  have  been 
made  than  that  rendered  by  the  reopening  and  organ- 
izing of  schools  under  the  supervision  of  the  military 
officials,  as  soon  as  it  became  evident  by  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  that  the  sovereignty  of  the  Islands  was  to  be 
transferred  to  the  United  States.  The  work  of  educa- 
tion was  immediately  taken  in  hand ;  and  even  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  insurrection  the  plan  of  furnishing 
free  public-school  instruction  was  not  abandoned,  for 
wherever  the  conditions  were  at  all  favorable  schools 
were  established  and  soldiers  detailed  as  teachers.  The 
central  military  government  purchased  and  distributed 
large  quantities  of  American  schoolbooks  and  supplies, 
and  aided  towns  that  were  too  poor  to  pay  the  salaries 
of  native  teachers  and  the  rentals  of  school  buildings. 


382 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


The  character  of  the  work  done  in  this  transitional 
period  from  the  former  Spanish  methods  to  the  present 
American  system  was  naturally  far  from  systematic  and 
ideal,  carried  on  as  it  was  largely  with  the  old  machinery 
and  often  necessarily  in  a  desultory  way;   yet  it  was 

an  important  step 
toward  the  organization 
as  it  now  is,  the  children 
Ijeiug  given  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  the  people 
in  part  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  the  idea 
of  American  schools. 
The  value  of  such  a  sys- 
tem was  recognized  by 
the  military  authorities, 
to  quote  the  command- 
ing general  at  the  time,^ 
as  "  an  adjunct  to  mili- 
tary operations,  cal- 
culated to  pacify  the 
people  and  to  procure 
and  expedite  the  restoration  of  tranquillity  throughout 
the  archipelago."  The  spectacle  of  the  American  soldier 
acting  in  the  role  of  teacher  of  his  enemies  was  one  that 
might  well  have  caused  thoughtful  Filipinos  to  reflect 
and  wonder  if  there  were  not  something  genuine  in  this 


SuLUIKR      TkACHER      ON     LeAVE     OF 

Absence  in  America  and  Two 
Filipino  Students  ix  America 


Major  General  MacArtbur. 


EDUCATION 


383 


conduct  of  the  agents  of  the  new  government,  —  some- 
thmg  that  seemed  to  substantiate  in  a  small  way  the 
declarations  of  what  American  policy  was  to  be. 

With  the  estabhshment  of  civil  government  the  pres- 
ent educational  organization  came  into  being.  Under 
the  immediate  direction  of  the  writer,  and  amid  diffi- 
culties with   which    this   pioneer  work  fairly  bristled 


GiKLb'  School,  Manila 

and  which  at  times  seemed  almost  insuperable,  an 
elementary  school  system  was  founded,  which,  in  its 
later  development,  in  the  writer's  candid  opinion,  has 
promise  of  a  degree  of  success  that  was  almost  beyond 
expectation.  No  precedent  existed  which  might  afford 
helpful  suggestion ;  the  field  and  its  occupants  were 
utterly  unknown  to  western  educators;  the  problem 
was  unique.  Yet  by  an  immediate  detennination  to 
make  English  the  basis  of  instruction  in  spite  of  expert 


384  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

warning  from  certain  quarters  and  the  practical  diffi- 
culties involved  in  such  a  step,  and  by  a  steadfast  adher- 
ence to  this  decision,  together  with  the  aid  of  a  corps  of 
efficient  American  supervisors  and  teachers  to  carry  it 
into  effect,  a  progress  that  points  to  an  ultimate  suc- 
cessful issue  has  resulted. 

Immediately  upon  the  writer's  arrival  in  the  Islands 
in  July,  1900,  he  began  a  careful  study  of  the  educa- 
tional problem ;  and  by  personal  observation,  and  con- 
sultation and  correspondence  with  army  officers,  local 
native  officials,  and  others  in  a  position  to  know,  he 
endeavored  to  learn  the  exact  situation  and  the  general 
opinion  as  to  the  educational  policy  to  be  pursued.  As 
a  great  diversity  of  views  was  encountered,  due  undoubt- 
edly to  the  variety  of  local  conditions,  and  as  the  prob- 
lems to  be  solved  had  already  been  formulated,  he  came 
to  believe  that  on  some  matters  judgment  must  be  sus- 
pended until  trips  of  personal  inspection  could  be  made 
throughout  the  Islands ;  and,  furthermore,  a  new  force 
was  recognized  in  the  axiom  about  going  slowly.  After 
an  extended  preliminary  study  of  the  conditions,  the 
general  superintendent  made  recommendations  to  the 
Commission  in  the  form  of  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of 
a  centralized  system  of  free  public  schools ;  and  this  meas- 
ure in  slightly  modified  form  was  passed  by  that  body 
on  January  1,  1901.    Its  chief  features  were  as  follows. 

A  centralized  system  of  free  public  schools  was  estab- 
lished under  the  supervision  of  a  general  superintendent 
who  should   have  the  entire  work  of  organizing  and 


EDUCATIOK  385 

inaugurating,  with  ample  and  necessary  powers  granted 
for  the  administration  of  his  office.  It  further  provided 
for  the  appointment  of  ten  division  superintendents, 
increasing  the  number  later  by  amendment  to  eighteen  ; 
for  deputy  division  superintendents,  one  for  each  organ- 
ized province ;  for  one  thousand  trained  teachers  from 
the  United  States  ;  and  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  normal,  agricultural,  and  manual  training 
schools.  The  expenditure,  furthermore,  for  the  succeed- 
ing year,  of  four  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  the  con- 
struction and  equipment  of  school  buildings,  and  of  two 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  dollars  for  the  purchase 
of  text-books  and  supplies,  was  authorized.  A  superior 
advisory  board  of  education,  to  be  composed  of  the 
general  superintendent,  together  with  four  qualified 
natives,  the  latter  to  act  in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the 
superintendent,  and  the  board  as  a  whole  to  make  rec- 
ommendations to  the  Commission  for  legislation,  was 
also  provided  for.  The  representation  of  the  people  in 
a  consultative  and  auxiliary  way  was  also  aimed  at  in  a 
provision  for  the  construction  of  local  school  boards,  of 
which  the  president  of  the  town  was  to  l^e  ex  officio 
chairman,  while  the  other  four  or  six  members  were 
to  be  chosen  one  lialf  by  the  municipal  council  and  one 
half  by  the  division  superintendents.  The  curriculum 
to  be  followed  throughout  the  Islands  was  that  outlined 
by  the  general  superintendent ;  the  appointment  of 
Filipino  teachers  was  provided  for,  their  salaries  to  be 
fixed  by  the  division  superintendents ;  and  all  school 


386  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

buildings  were  to  be  designed  after  plans  of  the  general 
superintendent,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  division 
superintendents.  By  this  measure  the  central  govern- 
ment undertook  to  support  the  entire  supervisory  ma- 
chine, pay  the  salaries  of  all  the  American  teachers, 
and  provide  text-books  and  school  supplies.  The  towns 
as  a  rule  were  to  supply  buildings  either  l^y  construc- 
tion or  rental,  equip  them,  and  pay  the  salaries  of  native 
teachers.  The  English  language,  as  soon  as  it  should 
be  practicable,  was  by  the  act  made  the  basis  of  all 
public-school  instruction;  the  Faribault  plan  of  religious 
instruction,  giving  to  every  denomination  the  right  to 
send  religious  teachers  at  various  times  during  the  week 
to  the  schools  to  give  instruction  to  the  children  of 
those  parents  who  desired  it,  was  adopted ;  and  no  public- 
school  teacher  was  permitted  to  teach  religion,  and  no 
pupil  was  required  to  receive  religious  instruction. 

Unlike  the  state  systems  of  puldic  instruction,  the  one 
outlined  by  this  school  law  showed  a  decided  tendency 
to  centralized  control,  which  was  a  natural  consequence 
of  the  social  and  political  conditions  of  the  Islands. 
Owing  to  a  lack  of  school  accommodations,  the  edu- 
cational act  contained  no  general  requirement  com- 
pelling school  attendance,  though,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
United  States,  it  was  felt  that  such  a  measure  was 
necessary  for  the  attainment  of  the  best  results. 

Immediate  steps  were  taken  for  putting  into  operation 
the  new  educational  machine  which  had  sprung  into 
definite  form  by  legislative  enactment,  and  the  warfare 


EDUCATION  387 

against  superficiality  was  begun.  Instead  of  making 
any  flourishes  by  establishing  high  schools,  colleges,  and 
ambitious  universities  first,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
these  were  most  in  demand,  primary  schools  were  fos- 
tered and  an  endeavor  was  made  to  insure  to  the  Fili- 
pino child  a  knowledge  of  English,  clear  ideas  on  a  few 
subjects,  and  a  receptive  and  awakened  intelligence. 


Country  School  in  Singalon,  a  Suburb  of  ^Manila 

The  archipelago,  after  much  difficulty,  —  due  to  the 
great  area  to  be  covered  and  the  very  inadequate  means 
of  communication  afforded,  making  even  small  distances 
serious.  —  was  divided  into  school  districts  by  an  appor- 
tionment as  practicable  and  convenient  as  was  possible ; 
and  the  few  superintendents  and  teachers  who  happened 
to  be  already  in  the  Islands  were  sent  out  into  the  field. 
To  supply  the  necessary  teaching  body,  men  and  women 


388  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLAXDS 

trained  in  the  profession  were  brought  from  the  United 
States,  and  without  any  knowledge  of  Spanish  or  the 
native  dialects  were  started  on  the  very  difficult  work 
of  imparting  instruction  to  their  charges  in  an  unknown 
tono-ue.  The  old  texts  were  removed  from  the  schools, 
and  more  than  half  a  milhon  of  American  school  books 
and  a  vast  quantity  of  supplies  were  soon  distributed 
throughout  the  various  towns ;  some  twenty  thousand 
modern  school  desks  were  supplied  as  a  start  in  the 
equipment  of  the  schoolhouses  on  something  like  a  mod- 
ern basis.  During  this  earlier  period  instruction  was 
provided  for  in  more  than  a  thousand  schools;  and 
by  the  opening  of  evening  schools  an  opportunity  for 
learning  English  was  offered  those  of  mature  age. 
The  salaries  of  the  Filipino  teachers  were  raised,  and 
a  definite  announcement  made  to  them  that  the  Ameri- 
can teachers  had  come  not  to  displace  them  but  to  pre- 
pare them  to  take  charge  of  their  own  schools.  They 
received  daily  instruction  in  the  new  language  at  the 
hands  of  the  American  teachers,  and  plans  were  made 
for  furthering  their  education  after  they  had  progressed 
sufficiently  with  the  language  itself.  Vacation  normal 
courses  began  to  be  held  in  several  of  the  school  divi- 
sions, and  the  normal,  industrial,  agricultural,  and  nau- 
tical schools  received  a  definite  impetus.  Every  town 
where  peace  had  been  restored  was  visited,  its  conditions 
investigated,  and  its  needs  in  so  far  as  possible  supplied. 
In  this  way  very  definite  steps  were  taken  toward  estab- 
lishing our  present  educational  organization. 


880 


390  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

Certain  difficulties  were  naturally  to  be  expected  in 
this  earlier  part  of  the  work,  and  though  at  the  time 
these  were  severe  enough,  as  months  went  by  they 
seemed  to  work  out  their  own  solution.  The  matter  of 
appointing  and  assigning  this  large  number  of  American 
teachers  was  itself  a  serious  one.  Owing  to  the  impos- 
sibility of  personal  conference  with  the  applicants,  more 
than  half  of  the  appointments  were  made  through  vari- 
ous heads  of  normal  schools  and  colleges  together  with 
state  officials  on  whom  it  was  deemed  wise  to  confer 
a  limited  appointing  power ;  many  of  these,  too,  and 
practically  all  of  the  later  ones,  were  made  directly  by 
letter  on  the  basis  of  several  thousand  personally  written 
applications  with  various  testlinonials  attached.  The 
character  of  these  teachers  and  applications  was  indica- 
tive of  a  great  interest  in  Philippine  affairs.  While 
men  of  nearly  every  profession  and  doubtless  a  large 
number  without  any  profession  applied  for  appoint- 
ment, many  capable  and  enthusiastic  teachers  hold- 
ing good  positions  in  the  United  States  and  vouched 
for  in  the  highest  terms  signified  their  willingness  to 
accept  work  in  the  Islands  at  the  same  salaries  they 
were  receiving  at  home,  and  in  some  instances  at  even 
smaller  ones.  In  making  the  various  appointments  care 
was  taken  to  secure  professional  teachers, — men  and 
women  in  sympathy  with  the  work,  who  are  making 
it  their  vocation  in  life.  During  the  earlier  months  of 
their  new  service  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  dif- 
ficulty in  obtaining  food  supplies  (particularly  in  the 


EDUCATION 


391 


interim  between  the  closing  of  the  military  commis- 
saries to  civilians  and  the  opening  in  an  adequate 
way  of  the  civil  supply  stores),  slight  illnesses  inev- 
itable for  new  arrivals  in  the  Islands,  salary  delays 
owing  to  the  inefficient  mail  service  at  the  time,  and 
currency  difficulties  due  to  the  depreciation  of  the 
Mexican  coins  commonly  used,  combined  to  form  a 
source  of  considerable  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the 


AmEICICAN    TkACHEU>,    TAUlAr 

teachers  and  presented  serious  problems  for  those  direct- 
ing the  new  movement.  But  the  difficulties  proved  in 
a  large  part  temporary,  and  the  teachers,  after  becoming 
settled  in  their  stations,  became  satisfied,  interested, 
and  enthusiastic  in  their  work.  The  comparatively 
small  amount  of  complaint  from  them  was  proof  of 
their  determination  to  overcome  ordinary  discomforts, 
often  severe,  which  were  attendant  upon  life  in  such 


392 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLxVKDS 


■■ 

^^^^^^V  ^  ^^^^H 

■vPV 

^PV>  H 

HS^ 

l^iHH 

^^^^^HjH^^-«- 

;i  country  as  the  Philippines.  Means  of  commnnica- 
tion  and  transportation,  moreover,  were  so  poor  that 
close  connection  between  the  central  authorities  and 
those  in  the  field  was  practically  impossible  ;  on  account 
of  the  lack  of  good  roads  the  supervising  officers  were 
often  unable  to  reach  all  their  schools  within  the  time 

prescribed  ;  and  for 
a  long  period  the 
sending  of  supplies, 
particularly  after 
the  military  officials 
were  compelled  to 
withdraw  the  aid 
that  had  become 
almost  indispen- 
sable, was  a  matter 
attended  with  most 
serious  delays  and  losses.  Certain  weaknesses,  too,  were 
discovered  in  the  school  law,  especially  in  the  control 
given  to  local  officials  over  the  disbursement  of  the 
funds  for  school  purposes  and  the  payment  of  native 
teachers.  Epidemics,  i3articularly  of  cholera,  and  also 
of  other  tropical  diseases,  played  havoc  with  the  system ; 
various  pests  threatening  the  crojDs  from  time  to  time 
kept  the  children  away  from  school ;  and  in  many 
parts  the  spirit  of  revolt  and  ladronism  was  so  active 
as  to  handicap  heavily  the  school  work.  Perhaps  most 
serious  of  all  was  the  lack  of  anything  like  suitable 
buildings   for    housing  the    children ;    but    in  spite   of 


Building  Dksks  ok  Commissary  Box 
LuMHEu,  San  Josk,  Batangas 


EDUCATION 


393 


drawbacks  the  department  forged  ahead,  remedying 
defects  and  developing  itself  by  the  addition  of  new 
featnres  just  as  soon  as  the  conditions  justihed  their  in- 
troduction. The  policy  followed  throughout  was  steady, 
slow-going,  careful,  fundamental  work,  looking  to  the 
distant  future  alone  for  results,  with  hope  centered  in 
the  new  generation.  No  attempt  was  made  at  display ; 
nothing  for  wliich  a  need 
did  not  exist  was  intro- 
duced; and  patience  has 
become  a  cultivated 
characteristic.  The  fact 
that  to-day,  after  a  four 
years'  period  of  trial  has 
passed,  Englisii  is  spoken 
in  some  degree  by  at 
least  a  few  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  archi- 
pelago, and  is  used  more 
than  Spanish  in  most  of 
the  towns,  not  to  mention 
the  various  provincial 
centers,  is  of  no  little  significance  and  promise.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  English  is  much  desired  by  the  Filipino. 

The  past  two  or  three  years  have  witnessed  certain 
changes  and  additions  to  the  system  as  first  put  into 
operation,  which  have  had  the  effect  of  making  it  more 
complete  ;  and  to-day  it  has  reached  a  stage  of  develo|> 
ment  that  really  invites  attention. 


Xative  Teach i:ii 
A  Taoaloo' 


394 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


The  present  organization  comprises  the  secretary  of 
public  instruction,  who  has  general  supervision  of  the 
bureau,  and  with  whom  lies  the  power  of  initiative  in 

school  legislation ;  the 
general  superintendent, 
in  active  control ;  thirty- 
five  school  divisions, 
each  generally  coincid- 
ing with  a  province,  in 
charge  of  division  super- 
intendents  who  are 
directly  responsible  to 
the  general  superintend- 
ent; some  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five 
American  teachers  and 
twenty-five  hundred 
native  ones,  having  in 
charge  approximately 
two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  children  for  whom  two  thousand  or  more 
schools  are  provided ;  thirty-eight  provincial  secondary 
schools,  many  with  industrial  departments;  an  insular 
nautical  school ;  agricultural  schools  in  embryo ;  an 
insular  trade  school;  a  series  of  normal  schools,  the 
central  one  in  Manila  and  the  tributary  institutes  in 
five  important  provincial  centers;  evening  schools;  va- 
cation normal  institutes ;  and  the  superior  advisory 
school  board  together  with  local  boards. 


Two  Native  Tkacheks,  Vu  tokia, 
Tarlac 

The  one  at  the  left  is  a  Paiupaiigo, 
the  other  is  an  Ilocano 


EDUCATION 


395 


lu  all  this  primary  instruction,  which  is  itself  the 
first  object  of  the  department,  the  American  teacher 
with  his  Filipino  aids  is  the  one  who  becomes  most 
intimate  with  the  natives  and  holds  the  key  to  the 
situation ;  and  if  true  to  himself,  his  profession,  and  his 
country,  he  is  the  chief  factor  at  present.  The  success 
of  this  entire  experiment  depends  upon  his  ability  to 
establish  sympatlietic  relations  with  Filipino  jDupils, 
teachers,  and  parents  by  the  exercise,  aside  from  his 
professional  training,  of  ready  tact,  plain  common  sense, 
a  warm  heart,  and  colossal  patience.  Many  are  far 
removed  in  the  interior,  living  on  native  food,  miles 


Boys'  School,  Malate 


away  from  the  nearest  American,  with  only  a  glimpse 
now  and  then  of  the  outside  world  through  the  medium 
of  a  poorly  equipped  mail  service ;  yet  they  see  a  bright 
side  withal,  and  are  satisfied.    Their  responsibilities  are 


396  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

great  when  the  situation  is  viewed  from  a  broad  stand- 
jjoint;  but  it  is  a  grand  opportunity  to  bring  out  man- 
hood and  womanhood,  and  that  the  majority  are  rising 
to  meet  it  augurs  well  for  the  success  of  the  movement. 
The  influence  of  this  American  teaching  body  has  been 
a  profound  one  in  the  work  of  pacification  which  our  gov- 
ernment has  been  fostering.  The  almost  sacred  regard  in 
which  the  teacher  is  held  has  been  everywhere  noticeable ; 
and  even  political  enemies  have  been  friendly  to  him. 

One  of  the  handicaps  which  the  work  has  thus  far 
felt  most  seriously  is  the  common  lack  of  efhcient  native 
teachers,  —  something  that  is  hardly  surjjrising  in  view 
of  the  poor  facilities  for  normal  training  which  previ- 
ously existed.  The  supervisory  character  of  the  work 
of  the  American  teacher  often  takes  him  away  from 
his  own  particular  school,  which  is  left  in  charge  of 
some  native  assistant ;  and  the  imperative  need  for 
better  trained  Filipino  instructors  then  becomes  ai3par- 
ent.  This  is,  however,  not  true  of  many  individual 
teachers  who  are  doing  excellent  work;  and  in  criticis- 
ing them  as  a  class  perhaps  we  are  expecting  too  much 
too  soon.  Their  position  and  their  compensation,  too 
often  dependent  upon  an  uncertain  source,  —  a  local 
treasury  easily  depleted,  —  are  not  yet  what  they  ought 
to  be;  and  though  their  salaries  have  been  increased 
something  like  33|  per  cent  since  the  institution  of  the 
American  school  system,  they  are  still  inadequate.^    As 

^  A  possible  monthly  average  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  dollars  local 
currency  for  males  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars  for  females. 


EDUCATION 


397 


to  their  compensation,  a  remedy  is  promised  by  granting 
to  the  division  superintendent  a  controlhng  power  over 
the  disposition  of  local  school  funds ;  and  as  regards 
their  training,  a  solution  has  already  been  arrived  at  in 
the  creation  of  a  normal  school  system  and  the  vacation 
normal  institutes. 

This  normal  work  is  without  doubt  only  second  in 
importance  to  the  general  primary  instruction  itself,  and 


First  Manila  Xormal  School  Faculty 

indeed  is  a  part  of  the  latter,  supplying  the  means  for 
its  furtherance.  In  conjunction  with  the  central  normal 
school  in  Manila  have  been  organized  five  tributary 
institutions  in  certain  important  provincial  centers,  — 
Vigan,  Neuva  Caceres,  Iloilo,  Cebu,  and  Zamboanga. 
Their  cm'ricula  embrace  many  of  the  higher  branches 
extending  over  a  four  years'  com-se ;    and  the  central 


398  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

school  in  Manila  is  distinctly  a  secondary  institution. 
It  lias  an  attendance  of  some  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  students  from  the  various  provinces,  a  corps  of 
special  American  teachers,  and  a  dormitory  s^'stem  for 
the  young  women.  The  grade  of  work  done  is  excel- 
lent, and  a  trained  body  of  young  men  and  women  is 
being  graduated  that  will  without  question  raise  the 
quality  of  the  native  teaching  force  to  the  degree  that 
is  desned. 

The  industrial  school  in  Manila  is  another  important 
development  of  the  educational  system,  and  with  facili- 
ties for  teaching  all  of  the  practical  trades  and  also 
telegraphy  and  stenography,  it  has  already  made  its 
value  felt.  Antipathy  to  manual  labor,  a  trait  of  the 
Filipino  people  in  general,  which  has  been  a  powerful 
opposing  force  to  American  endeavors  to  introduce  a 
system  of  education  fundamentally  industrial  and  utili- 
tarian in  character,  was  one  of  the  difficulties  whicli 
threatened  for  the  time  its  successful  operation.  But 
after  this  brief  period  of  comparative  indifference  to 
the  opportunities  offered  by  such  a  training,  the  school 
became  popular,  and  to-day,  with  an  attendance  of 
some  one  hundred  and  twenty  from  various  j^arts  of 
the  Islands,  and  a  demand  for  its  graduates  by  the 
government  and  private  concerns,  its  success  seems 
assured.  This  industrial  work  is  also  carried  on  as  a 
separate  course  in  connection  w4th  the  different  second- 
ary schools ;  and  in  some  cases,  as  among  the  Igorots 
and  the  Moros,  maiuial  training  alone  is  taught. 


EDUCATION 


399 


The  nautical  school  was  among  the  first  to  start 
operations  after  the  American  occupation,  and  was 
really  a  continuation  of  the  institution  which  existed 
under  the  Spanish  regime  for  preparing  the  natives  for 
service  at  sea.  It  has  pupils  from  different  parts  of  the 
archipelago,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  in  number,  who 
are  securing  a  training  in  navigation  that  v.-ill  fit  them 


Girls'  School,  Binang 

to  take  positions  in  the  merchant  marine.  The  school 
may  later,  according  to  j)lans  which  have  not  yet  crys- 
tallized, develop  into  a  real  Philippine  naval  academy 
conducted  on  the  lines  of  modern  institutions  of  such 
character,  with  students  appointed  from  each  province. 
Evening  schools  have  been  opened  at  practically 
every  place  where  an  American  teacher  has  been  sta- 
tioned, and   their  attendance  now  in    the  vicinity  of 


400 


THP:  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


twenty-five  thousand  indicates  the  interest  taken  by  the 
older  people,  particularly  local  officials  and  other  ambi- 
tious adults,  who  find  English  helpful  in  then  work  or 
a  desnable  acquisition  as  a  language. 

Besides  this  system  of  primary,  secondary,  and  special 
schools,  other  work,  such   as  music,  drawing,  sewing, 

and,  among  the 
Moros,  weaving  to  a 
certain  extent,  has 
been  done,  in  some 
of  which  particular 
aptitude  has  been 
shown.  In  certain 
cases  the  practical 
side  is  prominent,  for 
in  the  case  of  weav- 
inLn:  and  sewins;  the 
products  are  sold  and 
thus  the  school  be- 
comes the  seat  of  an 
industry. 

As  yet  industrial 
education,  the  common  bread-winning  means  of  the 
masses,  has  not  advanced  to  the  (Jegree  which  the  con- 
ditions in  the  Islands  demand.  A  model  agricultural 
school  has  been  established  and  a  certain  amount  of 
common  manual  training  has  been  going  on  in  some 
of  the  provincial  centers ;  but  the  progress  in  the 
ordinary  schools  has  far  outdistanced  that  done  in  an 


Igorot  Schoolboys 


EDUCATION  401 

industrial  way,  with  the  exception  of  the  central  trade 
school  in  Manila.  The  growth  of  the  two  kinds  of  work, 
academic  and  industrial,  should  be  more  nearly  parallel 
at  least,  and  the  only  sense  of  comfort  in  the  situation 
at  present  as  regards  the  latter  is  that  it  is  still  in  its 
infancy.    The  agricultural  nature  of  the  entire  country 


Igorot  School 

demands  its  extension ;  the  masses  must  always  remain 
dependent  upon  the  soil  for  their  maintenance  ;  and  the 
first  step  that  has  been  taken  will  be  followed  soon,  it 
is  hoped,  by  other  more  definite  ones. 

Another  feature  of  the  development  of  this  s}-stem 
is  the  provision  for  educating  certain  of  the  Filipinos 
in  the  United  States,  whereby  one  hundred  students 
are    now   studying   in    southern    California,   preparing 


402 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


themselves  to  take  up  at  home  the  active  part  m  edu- 
cational matters  for  which  they  will  be  fitted  by  their 
four  years'  course  here.  This  is  the  realization  of  a 
recommendation  which  early  seemed  a  wise  one ;  and 
the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  plan  of  sending 
native  students  to  the  States  for  some  time  to  come 

cannot   be   over- 
estimated. 

With  such  a 
system  now  in 
successful  opera- 
tion the  question 
arises,  What 
further  is  to  be 
provided  for  the 
satisfaction  of 
the  desire  for 
education  once  awakened  ?  The  need  for  higher  institu- 
tions hardly  exists  as  yet,  but  nevertheless  in  the  plan- 
ning of  the  educational  work  for  these  people  it  was 
impossible  to  avoid  looking  to  the  future  and  seeing 
what  might  then  be  possible  of  realization.  The  step 
has  in  some  places  already  been  made  from  primary  to 
secondary  institutions,  —  grammar-high  schools  are  now 
in  existence ;  and  something  higher  should  be  held  out 
for  that  class,  perhaps  not  yet  numerous,  which  will 
pursue  advanced  courses.  And  so,  early  in  the  work,  the 
founding  of  a  technical  school  with  courses  in  mining 
and  civil  and  electrical  engineering,  to  prepare  young 


SCHOOLHOUSE    AT    AkEVALO,    PaNAY 


EDUCATION  403 

men  for  practical  work  in  developing  their  country,  was 
within  view  ;  also  schools  of  fine  arts,  music,  and  paint- 
ing; and  as  an  apex  to  the  system,  a  university  with 
schools  of  law  and  medicine.  Such  an  extension  is  at 
present,  of  course,  speculative,  and  yet  it  seems  within 
the  bounds  of  possibility.  Along  with  the  academic  side 
of  this  development,  however,  should  come  the  practical ; 
and  remembering  experiences  that  we  have  had  at 
home,  we  should  keep  the  utilitarian  standpoint  always 
in  view. 

The  decision  on  the  part  of  those  who  had  this  educa- 
tional work  in  charge  to  make  English  the  language  of 
instruction  has  at  various  times  been  subjected  to  severe 
denunciation  on  the  part  of  certain  critics  at  home,  who 
in  the  exposition  of  their  views  have  shown  what  was, 
to  say  the  least,  a  lamentable  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  in  the  Islands  upon  which  this  decision  was 
based.  "Destruction  of  their  national  hterature  and 
tongue  by  foisting  the  English  language  upon  these  peo- 
ple "  was  hardly  the  proper  expression  to  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  a  land  where,  as  we  have  shown  in  this  book, 
there  never  was  a  common  dialect,  not  to  mention  a  lan- 
guage ;  nothing  of  importance  in  the  way  of  native  liter- 
ature existed ;  and  there  was  such  a  confused  number  of 
different  tribes,  each  with  its  own  tongue,  that  ethnolo- 
gists themselves  have  not  yet  worked  out  their  solution. 

When  the  American  educational  authorities  finished 
their  investigations  there  was  but  one  thing  to  do,  — 
adopt  English.   This  was  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the 


404  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

military  officials  who  had  come  to  learn  the  people  and 
the  conditions ;  it  was  the  eager  desire  of  the  people 
themselves  ;  it  was  the  only  course  open.  Spanish,  asso- 
ciated with  all  that  had  gone  on  before,  was  out  of  the 


Good  I'^n(;lish  .STroExr,  Concepcion,  Manila 

question ;  and  even  if  this  were  not  sufficient,  it  was 
comparatively  unknown  in  the  interior.  There  was  no 
common  language  ;  and  racial  antipathy  argued  strongly 
against  the  adoption  of  any  one  of  the  dialects,  which, 
though  somewhat  similar  in  structure,  are  quite  dif- 
ferent in  vocabulary,  and  have  never  shown  signs  of 


EDUCATION 


405 


fusion.  Furthermore  the  paucity  of  the  dialects  and 
their  inexactness  would  never  permit  of  the  carrying 
on  of  advanced  instruction  through  their  channels. 

Various  additional  difficulties  practically  insurmount- 
able would  have  pre- 
sented themselves  in  the 
adoption  of  the  policy 
of  teaching  in  the  differ- 
ent native  languages: 
neither  American  nor 
Filipino  teachers  had  a 
grammatical  knowledge 
of  the  dialects,  and  there 
would  have  been  no 
available  instructors  in 
the  newly  adopted 
tongue  except  possibly 
the  expelled  friars ;  there 
was  no  native  dialect 
susceptible  to  such 
changes  as  the  English, 
and  none  possessed  such 
a  possibility  of  variety 
of  expression  ;  also  —  a 
most  serious  practical  difficulty — suitable  books  could 
not  have  been  secured.  Worse  than  this,  however,  would 
be  the  tendency  of  any  such  educational  policy  toward 
the  disunion  rather  than  the  union  of  the  Filipinos  ;  the 
Tagalog  would  become  more  intimately  Tagalog,  and 


Santa  Teresa 
Wooden  statue  carved  by  a  Filipino 


40G  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

the  Visayan  would  hold  himself  aloof  with  even  more 
earnestness  than  to-day ;  and  so  would  the  other  tribes 
in  which  the  spirit  of  exclusiveness  would  by  this  means 
become  more  carefully  fostered. 

In  the  endeavor  to  give  the  Filipinos  a  language  that 
would  bind  them  into  an  official  and  commercial,  if  not 
domestic,  nationality,  the  bull  was  taken  hy  the  horns 
and  English  introduced  not  as  an  exotic  but  as  an 
actual  teaching  language.  The  results  of  the  past  four 
3'ears  have  demonstrated  to  the  complete  satisfaction  of 
the  writer  that  this  language  has  been  accepted  by  the 
Filipino  people  as  a  substantial  necessity.  The  natives 
favor  the  introduction  of  it,  for  soon  it  will  become  the 
official  language  ^  and  they  wish  their  children  to  acquire 
it  in  order  that  they  may  become  eligible  for  office. 
Again,  Spain  never  made  general  education  in  Spanish 
a  ^possibility,  but  in  fact  rather  discouraged  it ;  the  con- 
trast offered  by  the  present  policy  flatters  and  pleases 
the  native,  and  he  therefore  desires  it.  English-speaking 
Filipinos,  further,  are  drawing  larger  salaries  than  those 
who  speak  only  the  native  tongue  or  Spanish,  and  the 
others  want  this  larger  salary.  Finally,  the  natives  want 
English  because  of  the  social  position  acquired  by  its 
knowledge. 

Common  interests  should  be  one  of  the  chief  objects 
in  our  efforts  among  these  people,  and  such  will  never 
be  possible  through  native  dialects.  For  common  inter- 
course, as  well  as  for  training,  these  people  need  a  foreign 

1  In  1906. 


407 


408 


THE  PlilLTPPINK  ISLANDS 


speech ;  to  restrict  them  to  their  own  dialect  would  be 
to  continue  the  condition  of  isolation  in  which  we  found 
them,  stunt  them  in  their  growth,  and  deny  them  the 
material  and  the  intellectual  possibilities  offered  by 
such  a  language  as  the  English,  with  its  wealth  of  lit- 
erature and  ideas  and  its  value  in  the  common  inter- 
course of  life  in  the  Orient,  where  it  is  the  language 

of  the  commercial  and 
industrial  world.  The 
Filipinos  have  been 
already  convinced  of 
this  ;  their  sincere  desire 
to  know  the  new  tongue 
proves  it.  Without  doubt 
English  is  then  the  most 
valuable  language  in 
every  way  for  them ;  ma- 
terial prosperity,  official, 
political,    commercial. 

She  has  acted  as  teacher  to  fill  vacan-     and   SOcial  life  are  witll- 
cies  for  the  past  year  •       - 1  r    •■ 

^      ''  in  the  grasp  or  its  pos- 

sessor. And  more  than  this,  it  is  the  great  equalizer  of 
the  natives  inter  se. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  aside  from  the  public  schools 
and  the  church,  there  have  l)een  no  other  important 
common  sources  of  enlightenment  among  the  Filipinos. 
Public  libraries,  lecture  courses,  broad  commercial  re- 
lations with  foreign  countries,  a  widespread  daily  press 
to   give   publicity  to   all   affairs   of   state   and   society, 


A  BuicjiiT  Pupil,  Twelve 
Years  Old 


EDUCATION 


409 


modern  theaters,  active  participation  in  public  affairs, 
street-corner  political  discussions,  —  these  and  other 
agencies  of  essential  importance  for  the  advancement 
of  culture  must  later,  too,  be  included  in  that  larger 
system  of  training  which  our  government  is  directing. 
What  the  future  has  in  store  for  the  Filipino  people 
no  one  knows;  much  will  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  commg  generation  of  teachers.    The   capacity 


School  in  San  Fernando,  Union  Province 

of  the  Filipinos  for  education  gives  to  our  elforts  the 
promise  of  permanent  results.  There  may  be  interrup- 
tions and  setbacks  in  this  unique  experiment,  for  the 
field  is  large  and  bestrewn  with  difficulties;  yet  the 
educational  representatives  of  the  American  people  with 
the  saving  grace  of  common  sense  will  in  the  end  by 
their  genius  and  perseverance  train  up  the  Filipino 
youths  in  a  way  that  will  regenerate  their  country.  The 
system  that  has  been  inaugurated  will  mean  the  elevation 


410  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

of  the  people  of  the  lower  classes,  and  the  distressing 
gap  between  illiterate  ignorance  and  discriminating  cul- 
ture will  be  lessened.  Heterogeneity  will  give  place  to 
nationalit}',  and  pacification  and  prosperity  will  be  more 
firmly  secured. 

Popular  interest  has  been  aroused  in  education,  and 
in  this  lies  in  great  part  the  success  of  the  movement. 
Too  much  we  must  not  expect,  however,  for  native 
dialects  will  continue  to  be  spoken;  yet  English  will 
become  the  medium  for  the  transmission  of  modern 
currents  of  thought, —  in  brief,  present-day  civilization. 
The  outcome  of  a  broad  and  fnutful  education,  wisely 
regulated,  will  be  the  lifting  of  this  future  new  nation 
far  above  its  present  position  in  the  world's  class,  and  it 
will  share  with  Japan  the  important  work  of  breathing 
western  life  into  all  eastern  civilization. 

Conclusion 

In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  been  able  to  gain 
some  idea  of  just  what  our  possessions  in  the  distant 
Pacific  are ;  and  if  the  information  has  in  any  way 
aided  in  reconciling  conflicting  reports,  correcting  former 
impressions,  or  creating  new  ones  as  to  this  country  and 
its  possibilities,  and  the  nature  of  the  work  which  our 
American  government  is  conducting,  the  writer  feels 
amply  rewarded.  Such  is  the  variety  of  conditions  that 
confronts  any  observer  there  that  it  has  been  often- 
times difficult  to  make  unqualified  statements  of  general 
application  with  real  accuracy.    To  state  the  situation 


EDUCATION  411 

briefly,  our  government  is  attempting  by  the  exercise 
of  tlie  best  possible  effort  to  create  homogeneity  from 
the  heterogeneity  which  it  found  on  its  arrival,  furnish 
a  strong  civil  constitution  for  the  archipelago,  and  fit 
the  people  to  take  charge  of  themselves.  In  this  work 
it  has  secured  the  confidence  and  the  cooperation  of 
the  main  body  of  the  Filipino  people,  and  every  sign 
prophesies  successful  accomplislnnent. 

The  operation  of  the  civil  machine  is  yet  retarded  in 
a  measure  by  ladronism,  the  outgrowth  of  the  extended 
period  of  strife,  and  by  the  still  devastated  condition  of 
different  provinces  where  military  operations  were  espe- 
cially active.  The  late  ravage  of  cholera,  crop  pests, 
and  disease  among  the  native  animals,  and,  again,  unex- 
pected weakness  of  character  of  a  certain  few  among 
the  administrative  officers  have  been  further  impedi- 
ments. These  are  surely  disappearing,  however,  and  an 
unexpectedly  rapid  development  in  other  ways  has  been 
ample  compensation;  looking  upon  the  movement  as  a 
whole,  one  caimot  avoid  a  feeling  of  proud  satisfaction. 

Even  to-day  the  Islands  are  beginning  to  be  able  to 
supply  their  own  needs.  In  an  administrative  way  this 
is  particularly  true,  for  the  general  training  in  govern- 
ment, which  all  the  large  office-holding  class  is  receiv- 
ing, and  the  special  instruction  in  the  government 
institutions  are  both  calculated  to  teach  the  natives 
self-reliance.  On  the  practical  side,  the  development 
of  the  agricultural  industry  by  Chinese  labor,  by  which 
the  natives  will  absorb  the  principles  of  husbandry, 


412  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

will  tend  toward  the  same  result.  One  thing  that  im- 
presses the  newcomer  deeply  is  the  wond-erfiil  possibility 
of  the  archipelago  in  an  agricultural  way,  and  with  the 
transformation  of  these  natives  into  a  contented  labor- 
ing people  the  degree  of  self-support  which  is  necessary 
and  possible  will  be  realized. 

The  transition  in  this  whole  work  must  be  a  gradual 
one;  e\'en  in  those  respects  in  which  we  feel  that 
Philippine  laws  and  institutions  can  be  Americanized 
with  advantage,  the  work  must  be  done  slowly  and 
surely  if  we  would  avoid  superficiality  and  gain  security. 
For  some  time  to  come  no  jury  system  is  possible,  and 
all  public  moneys  must  be  handled  by  American  officials 
of  integrity.  In  judging  of  fitness  for  self-government 
on  the  American  plan,  the  character  and  intelligence  of 
the  masses  rather  than  of  the  few  must  determine  how 
fast  innovations  shall  be  introduced ;  and  their  natural 
conservatism  in  many  ways  must  be  respected. 

The  outlook  is  bright  for  the  Filipinos.  They  are 
bound  to  develop  in  some  way,  and  in  the  right  one 
if  we  persist  in  our  present  course.  From  their  many 
innate  gifts  something  substantial  is  certain  to  result  if 
the  conditions  are  at  all  favorable  ;  and  it  rests  with  the 
people  of  the  United  States  to  determine  the  conditions. 
They  have  already  begun  to  participate  in  their  govern- 
ment, and  as  time  goes  on  this  participation  will  become 
the  more  extensive.  We  have  scratched  a  Malay  and 
at  some  future  date  we  need  not  be  surprised  to  find  an 
American,  at  least  in  spirit  and  initiative. 


INDEX 


Abaca.     See  Hemp,  Manila 

Abdominal  band,  159 

Abra :  river,  42,  107  ;  province,  42 

Academy  of  drawing  and  painting, 
377 

Acapulco,  68,  78 

Acclimation,  148 

Acquisition  of  the  Philippines,  story 
of,  3 

Admission  of  Chinese,  259,  260 

Admixture,  258-260 

Aglipay,  Padre  Gregoria,  334 

Agno  river,  42,  167 

Agrarianism,  324 

Agriculture,  62,  96,  176,  177  ;  bu- 
reau of,  356 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio,  106,  108,  112, 
113,  114,  116,  119,  273,  325, 
334 

Agusan  river,  26,  44 

Albay,  province,  22,  30 

Alexander  VI,  Pope,  47 

Alphabet,  written,  373 

American  army :  tribute  to,  121  ; 
work  of,  347,  348,  350 

American  and  Filipino  children  com- 
pared, 266,  267,  268,  269,  270 

American  ideal,  6 

American  guardianship,  6 

American  civilization,  superiority 
of,  6 

Americans  have  greater  capacity  for 
industrial  activity,  6 

American  exploitation,  7 

American  occupation :  events  of, 
briefly  mentioned,  112-121 ;  of 
Manila  in  1898,  111 

American  priests,  introduction  of, 
331,  334,  336 


American  Protestants,  335 

American  teachers,  11,  267,  268, 
269,  380,  384,  385,  386,  387,  388, 
390,  391,  394,  395,  396,  398 

Americans  and  Filipinos,  8,  9 

Ancestral  ideas,  296 

Ancestral  spirits,  297 

Ancestral  worship,  296,  306,  307 

Andaman  islands,  242 

Anderson,  General,  112 

Angat,  107 

Animal  life,  192,  193 

Aniraists,  307 

Anitos,  297,  298,  303,  307 

Anthropology,  228 

Antiexpansionists,  93 

Anting-anting,  309,  310 

Antipathy  to  work,  266,  398 

Antique,  province,  24 

Anti-Roman  Catholic  movement,  334 

Ants,  149,  193,  216 

Apo :  a  god,  297  ;  volcano,  26,  33, 
36,  303 

Arabian  influence  upon  Moro  dia- 
lects, 89,  90 

Arayat,  30,  34 

Archbishop  (Fernando  Manuel  de 
Bustamente),  imprisoned,  freed, 
becomes  governor,  79 

Architecture,  284  ;  and  construction, 
bureau  of,  359 

Area  :  of  Philippines,  19,  20  ;  of  Lu- 
z6n,  20  ;  of  Mindoro,  20  ;  of  Mas- 
bate,  20  ;  of  Samar,  20  ;  of  Panay 
20 ;  of  Leyte,  20  ;  of  Palawan, 
20 ;  of  Negros,  20 ;  of  Cebii,  20  ; 
of  Bohol,  20  ;  of  Mindanao,  20 

Arms,  Moro,  251,  254 

Artistic  work,  amount  limited,  283 


413 


414 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Asiatic  and  Philippine  archipelagoes, 

26,  27,  28 
Asuang  308,  309 
Ateneo  de  Manila,  370 
Atmospheric  pressure,  128,  129 
Augustinians,  55,  77,  310,  328 
Australasia,  27,  200 
Autonomy   in    local   affairs  desired 

from  Spain,  87 
Awakenings  in  educational  interest, 

380,  381 
Ayuntamiento,  284 
Azores,  47 

Babuyan,  22 

Bagobos,  303 

Baguio,  Benguet,  154 

Baguios.    See  Cyclones  and  Typhoons 

Bajans,  or  sea  gypsies,  237 

Balabac,  24,  26 

Balangiga,  massacre  of,  290,  291 

Bamboo,  188 

Banajao,  30,  34 

Bananas,  178,  180 

Banks,  bureau  of,  359 

Baptism,  Chinese  forced  to  receive, 

80 
Baptists,  335 
Barangay,  01,  70,  337 
Barbosa,  52 
Bnrong,  254 
Barrios,  232,  338 

Basilan,237  ;  peninsula,  22  ;  strait,  26 
Bataks,  230,  300 
Batangas,  province,  22 
Bates  Treaty,  251,  252 
Bathing,  278 
Bautista,  monk,  71,  72 
Beaterio  de  San  Ignacio,  375 
Beliefs,  early,  02,  296.    See  Chapter 

XII 
Benedictines,  316,  329 
Benefits  of  American  sovereignty,  13 
Benguet,  42,  153 
Beriberi,  150,  153 
Biac-na-bat6  Treaty,  108 
Bible,  335 


Bicols,  60,  238,  256 

Birth  rate,  232 

Bishop  of  Manila,  first,  68,70,  311 

Blanco,  Governor  General,  106,  107 

Blood  compact.     See  Katipunan 

Blunientritt,  231,  232 

Board  of  Authorities,  340,  341 

Bohol :    area,    20  ;     mountains,   24 ; 

seismic    centers,    36 ;    visited    by 

Legaspi,  55 ;  uprisings  in,  74,  83 ; 

commercial  geography,  199 
Bolinao,  22 
Bombon  lake,  30 

Borneo,  19,  24,  26,  27,  60,  GS,  304 
Bribery  and  corruption,  274 
Brigandage,  119.     See  Ladrones 
Brigands.     See  Ladrones 
Bubonic  plague,  150,  153,  156,  165, 

214 
Buffaloes.     See  Carabaos 
Bulacan,  province,  107 
Bulusan,  22,  30 
Buquidnones,  236 
Bureaus :    organization  of,  354-360 ; 

civil  service,   354 ;   public  health, 

355 ;    forestry   and   mining,   355 ; 

public     lands,    356 ;     agriculture, 

356  ;  weather  and  geodetic  survey, 
356 ;  coast  guard  and  transporta- 
tion, 356  ;  ethnological  survey, 
IMiilippine     constabulary,      posts, 

357  ;  insular  treasury,  357,  358 ; 
insular  auditor,  357  ;  justice,  358, 
359;  customs  and  immigration,  in- 
ternal revenue,  banks,  359  ;  educa- 
tion, printing,  architecture,  and 
construction,  359 

Burgos,  Dr.  Joseph,  84,  85,  98,  99, 100 
Burial  rites,  296,  297,  299 
Burias,  22 
Buttian,  26,  51 

Caheza  de  barangay,  70,  337,  338 
Cables,  8(5,  168,  169 
Cacao.     See  Chocolate 
Cagayiin :   province,    73 ;   river.    40, 
167,  244  ;  valley,  42,  256 


i:ndex 


415 


Cagayanes,  239,  256 

Cailles,  General,  118,  119 

Calantds,  182 

Camagon,  182 

Camarines,  22 

Cambodia,  73 

Campilan,  254 

Canals  in  Manila,  3-4 

Canla6n  or  Malaspina,  24 

Cape  Eugaiio,  22,  30 

Cape  Verde  islands,  48 

Capiz,  province,  24 

Capucliins,  316,  320 

Caraballos  de  Baler,  22 

Caraballos  Occidentales,  21 

Caraballos  Sur,  21,  22 

Carabaos,  165 

Caribbean  islands,  82 

Catholicism,  315,  316,  331,  332 

Cavite :  city,  110,  111;  province,  22, 
74,  106,  107 

Cavite  insurrection:  of  1872,  84,  85, 
97;  of  1896,  103,  106-108 

Cebii,  city,  51, 110  ;  Magellan  entered 
harbor,  51  ;  Legaspi  entered  har- 
bor, 55  ;  seat  of  government,  56  ; 
trade,  198;    normal  school  at,  397 

Cebu,  island  :  area,  20 ;  mountains, 
24 ;  seismic  centers,  36 ;  rivers, 
43 ;  uprisings,  74,  83 ;  commercial 
geograpliy,  198  ;  language,  239 

Cedilla  j)ersonal,  86 

Celebes  islands,  26,  27 

Celebes  sea,  19 

Census,  352 

Change  of  officials,  too  frequent,  97, 
272^ 

Change  of  residence,  91 

Changes  of  government,  272 

Character,  native,  264-276 

Characteristic  of  the  Malay  race  in 
the  Islands,  60 

Charles  I,  king  of  Spain,  48 

Charles  III,  king  of  Spain,  376 

Chico,  181 

Children,  Filipino,  266-270 

China,  19,  78,  200 


China  coast,  73 

China  sea,  19,  42 

Chinese,  63-66,  72,  73,  74,  76,  80, 
177,  190,  212,  258-263 

Chinese-Mestizos,  259,  260,  203,  294 

Chocolate,  169,  176 

Cholera,  150,  153,  157,  158,  105,  214, 
392 

Christianity:  accepted  by  natives,  76, 
77;  not  accepted  by  Igorots,  245, 
246 

Christian  Disciples,  335 

Christian  tribes,  237-240.  See  Chap- 
ters X  and  XI 

Church,  271,  272 

Church  and  state,  70,  71,  79,  92, 
327,  328,  339 

Church  discipline,  lack  of,  326 

Church  processions,  224,  225,  318 

Churches,  284 

Cigars,  172,  173 

Circumnavigation  of  globe,  the  first,  54 

Cirrus  clouds,  140,  141 

Civil  service,  354,  355 

Civil  War,  380 

Classes  of  society  in  pre-Spanish 
times,  61 

Climate,  28.     See  Chapter  V 

Clothing,  158-160 

Clouds,  137 

Clubs  in  Manila,  221 

Coal,  184,  185 

Coast  guard  and  transportation,  bu- 
reau of,  356 

Coast  line,  length  of,  166 

Cockfighting,  282 

Cockroaches,  149,  216 

Coffee,  169,  176 

Colegio  de  la  Inmaculada  Concep- 
ci6n,  376 

College  of  San  Jos^,  73 

Colonization,  12 

Color  line,  271 

Columbus,  46,  50 

Commerce,  94.     See  Chapter  VII 

Common  sources  .of  enlightenment 
wanting,  408,  409 


416 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Comparative  philologj-,  228 
Compulsory  school  attendance,  386 
Concealment  of  the  sick,  158 
Conception  of  colonization,  Spanish, 

92 
Conclusion,  410-413 
Conditions  previous  to  the  advent  of 

the  Spanish,  61,  62,  373 
Confiscation     of     property    of     the 

orders,  325 
Conflicts   with   the   Dutch,   68,    72- 

74 
Conflicts  with  the  Portuguese.     See 

Portugal  and  Spain 
Congressional  action,  352 
Connection  of  the  Philippines  with 

Asia,  26,  27 
Consent  of  the  governed,  5 
Conservatism,  8,  9 
Conspiracy  in  Pampanga  and  Manila, 

68 
"Constitution  of  1812,"  85,  86 
Contact   with   Spanish    civilization, 

effect  of,  88,  89 
Contents,  v 
Convents,  310,  311 
Conversion  of  natives  to  Christianity, 

58,  76,  77,  293,  310-320,  339,  374 
Copper,  184 
Copra,  169,  175 
Coral  beds,  193 
Cordage,  188 

Cordillera  Central,  22,  243 
Cordillera  Norte,  22 
Corn,  169,  176 
Corregidor,  22 
Corvee  or  forced  labor,  91 
Cost  of  living,  223 
Cotabato,  province,  26 
Council :      of     Trent,    84 ;     of     the 

Philippines,   340 ;   of  Administra- 
tion, 341 
Courts,  358 

Creeks  or  enteros,  34,  212 
Curriculum  of  primary  schools:    in 

Spanish  times,  378,  379;  in  Ameri- 
can times,  385 


Customs   and   immigration,    bureau 

of,  359 
Cyclones,  138-143.     See  Typhoons 

Da  Gama,  46 

Danger,  8,  9 

Dasmarifias  :  Gomez  P^rez,  71,  72; 
Luis  P^rez,  72,  73 

Davao,  236 

Death  :  of  Magellan,  52 ;  of  Legaspi, 
58,  63 

Death  rate,  156,  232,  233 

Defects  of  Spanish  system  of  admin- 
istration, 343,  344 

De  Juzman,  Francisco  Tello,  73 

Demand  for  native  priests,  86 

Demarcation  Bull,  47 

l^emocratic  principles  applied,  4 

De  Morga,  Antonio.     See  Morga 

Dengue  fever,  148 

Destruction  of  Spanish  fleet.  111 

De  Tavera,  Pardo,  351 ;  quoted,  370 

Dewey,  Admiral,  112 

"Dhobie  itch,"  149 

Diarrhoea,  153 

Diaz,  46 

Difficulties  :  of  promoters  of  educa- 
tion, 10 ;  in  establishing  school 
system,  390-393 

Dinatas,  303,  307 

Discomforts,  150,  152 

Discontent  and  hostility,  cause  of,  94 

Discovery  of  the  Islands,  51 

Diseases,  prevalent,  148,  150,  153 

Division  of  Philippine  archipelago 
into  earthquake  districts,  34,  36, 
38 

Division  superintendents,  385,  394, 
397 

Dominicans,  68,  77,  312,  328,  375 

Dress :  and  conduct,  rules  of,  158- 
163  ;  native,  278,  279 

Drinks,  160 

Droughts,  165 

Dutch,  68,  72,  73,  74 

Duty  of  the  United  States  in  the 
Philippines,  3,  13 


INDEX 


417 


Dyaks  of  Borneo,  60 
Dysentery,  150,  153 

Early  times  and  conditions  in  the 
Philippines,  228 

Earthquakes,  28,  36 ;  number  regis- 
tered in  Manila  (1880-1897),  3-4; 
stations,  34,  75 

Eastern  Extension  and  China  Tele- 
graph Company,  169 

East  Indies,  46,  200 

Ebony,  182 

Ecclesiastical  system  established, 
312,  313,  316 

Edict  of  July  2,  1897,  108 

Educated  Filipinos,  few  in  number, 
380 

Education,  10-12;  Filipino  point  of 
view  of,  265,  266 ;  Filipino  chil- 
dren, 266-270 ;  schools  established 
by  the  religious  orders,  311;  bureau 
of,  359 ;  previous  to  the  advent  of 
the  Spaniards,  373 ;  Spanish  at- 
tempts at,  374-381;  American 
efforts,  under  military  auspices, 
381-383 ;  American  efforts  under 
military  auspices  bj'  civil  authori- 
ties, 383-410.     See  Chapter  XIV 

Education  of  Filipinos  in  the  United 
States,  401,  402 

Educational  bill,  384,  385 

Educational  needs,  future,  402,  403 

Educational  policy,  American,  392 

Effect  of  Philippine  climate,  122,  127, 
144,  145,  146,  147,  151,  152 

El  Dorado,  46 

El  Filibusterismo,  102 

Embroideries,  283 

Engafio,  cape,  22,  30 

England,  80,  82 

English :  rudimentary,  10 ;  intro- 
duced, 383  ;  basis  of  instruction, 
386 ;  spoken,  393 ;  in  evening 
schools,  400 ;  language  of  instruc- 
tion, 403-409 

Englishmen,  opinion  of  certain,  of 
native  character,  etc.,  293,  294 


Epidemics,  150,  156-158 

Episcopalians,  335 

Equal  rights,  idea  of,  94,  95 

Eruptions  of  Taal  volcano,  36 

Escolta,  214 

Escuela  de  Maestras,  376 

Estimates  of  native  character.  See 
Chapter  XI 

Ethnological  elements  of  the  popula- 
tion, 233-241 

Ethnological  survey,  bureau  of,  234, 
357 

Ethnology,  228 

Evaporation,  129 

Evening  schools,  388,  394,  399 

P^xclusion  of  Chinese,  259,  260 

Executions  of  rebels  in  1896,  99,  103 

Exercise,  160,  221 

Expeditions :  of  Magellan,  45,  48,  50- 
52 ;  of  Villalobos,  54  ;  of  Legaspi, 
55 

Exports,  169 

Expulsion :  of  friars,  108 ;  of  the 
Jesuits,  376 

Extent  of  Philippines,  19,  20 

Fables,  307,  308 

Fajardo,  Governor  General,  75 

Falsehood,  267 

"  Family  Compact,"  80 

Family  life,  62,  279 

Famines,  76 

Faribault  plan  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, 386 

Faura,  Father,  director  of  Manila 
observatory,  123,  124 

Feast  days,  318 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  47 

Fertility,  12 

Festivals  or  fiestas,  280-282,  284,  285 

Fiestas.     See  Festivals 

Filipino  :  term  defined,  264 ;  indirect- 
ness, 274 

Filipinos :  incapable  of  self-govern- 
ment, 5  ;  childlike,  6  ;  and  Ameri- 
cans, 8,  9 ;  and  Spaniards,  9 ;  in 
official  positions,  353,  354,  358 


418 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Fishing,  100 

Fleet   of   Magellan,    50 ;   of   Insular 

Government,  1(38 
Floods.  16i 

Flowers  and  fruits,  178,  180,  181 
Foods,  100,  100,  102 
Foreigners  in  the  Islands,  85,  200, 

261 
Forestry    and    mining,    bureau    of, 

355 
Formosa,  30 
Fort  Santiago,  82 
Forts,  284 
France    and    Spain    allied    against 

England,  80 
Franciscans,  68,  77,  311,  328 
Franco-Prussian  War,  380 
Freemasonry,  so-called,  07,  08 
Free  thought,  333 
Friar  missionaries,  work  of,  7(),  77, 

01,  92 
Friar  question,  320,  334,  339 
Friars:  of  Magellan's  party,  52;  of 

Legaspi'spartj',  55  ;  Augustinians, 

55,77,310;  Dominicans,  68,77.  312; 

Franciscans,  68,  77,  311;   Jesuits, 

68,  77,  311;  Kecoletos,  77;  other 

orders,  310 
Fruits  and  flowers,  178.  180,  181 
Funeral  rites,  282 
Funston,  General,  119 
Future,  6,  7,  409.  See  "  Conclusion," 

410-413 

Galleons,  74,  78 

Games,  268,  282,  283 

Garcia,  monk,  72 

General  policy,  results  of,  8 

General  superintendent  of  education, 

384,  385,  386,  394 
Geodetic  survey,  bureau  of,  356,  357 
Geology,  29 
Glanders,  165,  219 
Gods,  native,  297,  299,  300,  301,  303. 

304,  306,  307 
Goiti,  65 
Gold,  184 


Government,  12 ;  tribal,  337,  338 ; 
Spanish  form  of,  338-345  ;  Ameri- 
can, 344-353 ;  comparison  of  the 
two  systems,  353,  354  ;  work  of  the 
Commission,  354-363 ;  provincial, 
363, 364  ;  municipal,  36^3-368  ;  civil, 
established,  368-373.  See  Chapter 
XIII 

Great  Britain  declares  war,  80 

Guerrilla  warfare,  119 

Guidi,  papal  delegate,  330 

Guijo,  182 

Gutta-percha,  176 

Half-castes,  59.     See  Mestizos 

Harbors,  166 

Hard  woods,  182 

Harris,  W.  T.,  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  quoted,  152 

Havana,  82 

Head  hunters,  60,  236,  246 

Health  of  American  soldier.s,  153, 154 

Hemp,  Manila,  160-171,  186,  188 

High  Court  of  Mexico,  63 

Higher  educational  institutions,  375, 
376,  377,  380,  387,  402 

Historical  data,  228 

Hogs,  102 

Holland,  treaty  of  peace  with,  74 

Home  life  of  natives,  279,  280 

Home  rule,  345 

Honey,  193,  106,  109 

Hongkong  Junta,  112 

Honolulu,  214 

Hospitality,  222,  276,  277 

Hostility  against  the  friars,  chief 
ground  for,  323,  324,  332 

Hotel  de  Oriente,  370 

House  fly,  149 

Houses,  279,  280 

Howells,  W.  D.,  quoted,  104 

Hughes,  General,  quoted,  291,  292 

Humidity,  129-131 

Ide,  Henry  C,  348,  351 
Ignacio,  Friar  Martin,  quoted,  313, 
314 


INDEX 


419 


Ignorance,  270 

Igorots,  60,  74,  236,  243-246,  2U6- 
298,  335,  398 

Iligan  bay,  26 

Illana  bay,  26 

Illanos,  237 

Ilocanos,  00,  238,  239,  240,  256,  257, 
258 

Ilocos  Sur,  42 

Iloilo :  province,  24,  43  ;  seat  of  gov- 
ernment transferred  to,  50;  situa- 
tion, 197  ;  normal  school  at,  397 

Immigration,  Malayan,  256 

Imitativeness,  200,  267 

Immobility  of  the  natives,  233 

Immorality  of  the  friars,  331,  332 

Immortality,  idea  of,  310 

Independence,  4,  5,  95,  114,  117, 
344,  345 

Indian,  204,  339 

Indigo,  109,  170 

Individuality,  9 

Indolence  of  the  natives,  105 

Indonesian  race  in  the  archipelago, 
58-00 

Industrial  education,  400,  401 

Industrial  school.    See  Trade  school 

Information  conflicting,  2,  3 

Inhabitants  as  they  existed  previous 
to  Spanish  conquest,  58-62,  90,  91 

Insects,  149,  150 

Insular  auditor,  357 

Insular  treasury,  357,  358 

Insurance  companies  investigate 
health  conditions,  150,  151 

Insurgent  Congress,  114 

Insurgent  government,  114 

Insurgents,  attack  of  the  Spanish,  1 14 

Insurrection  :  in  Cavite,  84,  85 ;  of 
1896,  103,  100-108 ;  in  Cebu,  110 

Intelligence :  of  Filipino  children, 
207  ;  of  Filipino  adults,  270 

Interest  in  public  affairs,  271 
Interisland  connnunication,  100,  107 
Intermarriage,  59,  259 
Internal  revenue,  bureau  of,  359 
Internal  strifes,  70 


Investment  of  American  capital,  105 

Ipil,  182 

Irada,  mountain,  22 

Irrigation,  165,  232 

Isabella,  province,  73 

Islands,  area  of  eleven  largest,  20, 

21 
Isthmian  Canal,  200 

Jaena,  99 

Jalaur,  43 

Japan,  19,  71,  72,  73,  78,  200;  rela- 
tions with  the  Philippines,  02,  71, 
72,  100 

Japanese,  02 ;  and  Filipinos,  270 

Jaro,  316  ;  episcopal  seat  of,  376 

Java,  27,  28 

Jesuit  fathers,  29,  301,  304,  307 

Jesuits,  33,  08,  77,  122,  123,  311,  329, 
375,  370 

John,  king  of  Portugal,  47 

Jol6,  237 

Judicial  system,  organization  of,  358, 
359 

Jusi,  180,  198 

Justice,  administration  of,  94  ;  bureau 
of,  358,  359 

Katipuiian,  98,  272 

Kieuion,  71 

King  of  Cebu,  52 

King  Charles  I  of  Spain,  48-52 

King  John  of  Portugal,  47 

King  Philip  II  of  Spain,  54 

King  of  Siao,  72 

"  King  of  the  Tagalogs,"  83,  84 

Kue-sing,  leader  of  invasion,  70 

Koran,  304,  305 

Korea,  19 

Labor,  91,  165,  287,  292 
Labor  problem,  12 
Ladrone  islands,  50 
Ladrones,  50,  105,  100,  273 
Laguna  de  Bay,  30,  43,  205 
Lakatan,  180 
Lake  of  Bay,  30,  43 


420 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Lakes,  44 

"  La  Liga  Filipina,"  08 

Lanao :  province,  20 ;  lake,  44,  237, 
248,  255 

Lanaos,  237 

Landing:  of  Magellan,  51;  of  Legaspi, 
55 

Land  tenure,  356 

Language,  90,  256,  257,  373,  403- 
409 

Languages,  231,  232,  239 

Lanzones,  181 

Latitude  and  longitude,  19 

Lavezares,  63 

Legarda,  Benito,  351 ;  quoted,  370- 
372 

Legaspi,  Miguel  Lopez  de,  54-56,  58, 
70,  2^,  310 ;  followers  of,  68,  70 

Legaspi-Urdaneta  monument,  284 

Leo  XIII,  Pope,  330 

Lepanto-Bontoc,  42 

Leprosy,  150,  153 

Leyte :    area,    20 ;    mountains,    24 
seismic   centers,    36  ;    rivers,    43 
name,  54  ;  visited  by  Legaspi,  55 
uprisings,    74 ;   commercial  geog- 
raphy, 197 

Life  in  the  Philippines,  150 

Lignite,  184 

Limahong,  64-66 

Lingayen,  gulf,  42 

Lizards,  149,  216 

Local  customs  retained,  276 

Local  school  boards,  385,  394 

Locusts,  165,  193 

Longitude  and  latitude,  19 

Los  Bafios,  springs  of,  39 

Lucban,  General,  119 

Luna,  Juan,  283,  284 

Luneta,  210 

Luxuriant  vegetation,  28 

Luz6n  :  area,  20  ;  mountain  system, 
21,  22  ;  volcanoes,  30,  32,  33 ; 
earthquake  of  1852,  36  ;  river  sys- 
tems, 40-43  ;  uprisings,  74  ;  revolt 
of  1649,  75 ;  commercial  geog- 
raphy, 194,  195  ;  inhabitants,  237, 


238,  239  ;   provincial  governments 
in  Spanish  times,  341 
Luzuriaga,    Senor,    327,    328,    351 ; 
quoted,  372 

MacArthur,  General,  quoted,  273, 
287,  288,  348,  350 

Mactan  island,  52 

Magellan,  45,  48-52  ;  route,  49-51 ; 
fleet,  50 ;  straits,  50 ;  tomb,  284 

Manguindanaos,  236 

Maintenance  of  schools,  386 

Malabang,  237 

Malacca,  48 

Malaria,  150,  153,  156,  193 

Malaspina.     See  Canlaon 

Malay  origin,  9,  58,  59,  256,  294 

Malay  peninsula,  242 

Malay  race,  60,  256  ;  three  invasions, 
59,  60 

Malfeasance  in  office,  274 

Malolos:  the  insurgent  capital,  114, 
118;  constitution  of,  325 

Malvar,  General,  119 

Mandayas,  302,  303 

Mangoes,  180,  181 

Mangosteen,  181 

Manguianes,  236,  298,  299 

Manila:  situation  in  relation  to  earth- 
quakes, 34;  number  of  earthquakes, 
34  ;  earthquake  of  1863,  34  ;  earth- 
quake of  1645,  36 ;  arrival  of 
Salcedo,  56 ;  destroyed  by  fire, 
68  ;  improved,  72  ;  eartliquake  of 
1645,  75,  204  ;  taken  by  English, 
82  ;  uprising,  83  ;  taken  by  Amer- 
icans, 111  ;  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture, 125 ;  humidity,  130,  131  ; 
rainy  days,  133  ;  rainfall,  135 ; 
bubonic  plague,  epidemic  of,  156  ; 
harbor,  160  ;  commercial  posi- 
tion, 200  ;  name,  203,  204  ;  foun- 
dation by  Legaspi,  203  ;  walls, 
204  ;  site,  204-206  ;  population, 
206-208  ;  Luneta,  210  ;  improve- 
ments under  new  government,  212, 
214,   216;  attractions,   216,   217; 


INDEX 


421 


housekeeping,217, 218;  daily  trans- 
portation, 219,  220 ;  meats  and 
groceries,  220  ;  society,  220-222  ; 
newspapers,  221,  222  ;  cost  of  liv- 
ing, 223  ;  Paco  cemetery,  223  ; 
monuments,  224  ;  church  proces- 
sions, 224,  225  ;  Protestants,  225  ; 
government,  226  ;  inhabited  by 
Tagalogs,  238;  language,  230;  walls 
and  gates,  284;  becomes  metropol- 
itan diocese,  316;  normal  school 
at,  397,  398 

Manila  bay,  22,  43,  205,  210 

Manners  and  customs,  275-286 

Manobos,  236,  303 

Marble  quarrying,  184 

Marinduque,  mountains  of,  22 

Mariveles,  208 

Marriage,  62,  297 

Masbate  :  area,  20  ;  mountains,  22  ; 
seismic  centers,  36 ;  commercial 
geography,  196 

Massacre  of  Balangiga,  290 

Maura,  Sefior,  343 

Maynila,  56.     See  Manila 

Maydn  volcano,  30-32,  36 

Mechanical  industries,  186-191 

Melanesia,  243 

Memory,  loss  of,  151 

Merritt,  General,  346 

Mestizos,  59,  271,  294.  See  Chinese- 
Mestizos  and  Spanish-Mestizos 

Meteorology,characterof  workin,142 

Methodists,  335 

Mexican  code  of  laws,  68 

Mexico,  95  ;  and  the  Philippines,  63, 
68,  74,  78 

Military  government,  346-351 

Mincopies,  242 

Mindanao :  area,  20 ;  mountains, 
24  ;  seismic  centers,  36  ;  rivers,  44  ; 
visited  by  Legaspi,  55  ;  Indonesian 
descendants  in,  59 ;  tributary  to 
Borneo,  68 ;  troubles  with,  73 ; 
uprisings,  74 ;  commercial  geog- 
raphy, 199;  religion  of  inhabitants, 
296,  304  ;  military  government,  341 


Mindoro  :  area,  20  ;  rivers,  43  ;  com- 
mercial geography,  195,  196 

Mineral  resources,  184,  185 

Mineral  springs,  38,  39 

Mining,  early  pursued,  61 

Ministers  for  the  colonies,  created,  86 

Mint,  96 

Misamis,  province,  26 

Missionaries:  Arabian,  304;  Protes- 
tant, 225;  Jesuit,  304;  sent  out,  311 

Missions,  number  of,  328 

Mohammedanism,  62,  304,  305 

Mohammedans,  296,  373 

Molave,  182 

Mollusks,  192,  193 

Moluccas,  27,  48,  49,  68,  72,  73 

Monastic  orders,  315 

Money,  62 

Monsoons,  136,  137 

Montescos,  236 

Monteses,  236,  300,  301 

Monuments,  284 

Moral  character,  effect  of  Philippine 
climate  on,  152 

Moral  characteristics :  of  Filipino 
children,  267,  268;  of  Filipino 
adults,  271 

Morga,  73,  314.  See  De  Morga, 
Antonio 

Moros,  60,  68,  74,  76,  80,  236,  237, 
246-256,  304,  305,  373,  398 ;  large 
population  centering  around  lake 
Lanao,  44 

Moses,  Bernard,  348,  351 

Moslems :  and  Americans,  44;  and 
Spaniards,  44 

Mosquitoes,  149,  193,  216 

Mountains :  general  direction,  21 ; 
ranges,  in  Luz6n,  21,  22  ;  subma- 
rine ranges,  22  ;  ranges,  in  Panay, 
Negros,  Cebu,  Bohol,  24  ;  in  Leyte 
and  Samar,  26 ;  Mindanao,  26 ; 
influence,  39,  40 

Mount  Isarog,  236 

Municipal  government :  in  Spanish 
times,  342  ;  under  American  rule, 
347,  348,  360,  365-368 


422 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Municipality,  232 
Music,  284,  285,  400 

Narra,  182 

National  independence,  114 

Native  character,  10,  17 

Native  clergy,  312,  313,  324 

Native  medical  skill,  156 

Native  officials,  273,  274 

Native  physician,  testimony  of,  2ii2, 
293 

Native  teachers,  378,  370,  385,  394, 
395,  396 

Nautical  school,  377,  394,  399 

Navidad,  Mexico,  55 

Neatness  of  garb,  278 

Negritos,  the  first  inhabitants,  58,  59, 
60,  234,  240-243 

Negro  problem,  14 

Negros  :  area,  20 ;  mountains,  24  ; 
seismic  centers,  30 ;  rivers,  44 ; 
rebellion,  84 ;  commercial  geog- 
raphy, 198  ;  hostility  to  the  friars, 
327,  328 ;  political  conditions  in 
Spanish  times,  341 

Nevrspapers,  221,  222 

Noli  Me  Tangere,  101,  104,  105 

Non-Christian  peoples,  233-237 

Normal  schools :  Spanish,  376;  Amer- 
ican, 394,  397,  398 

Nueva  Caceres:  episcopal  seat  of,  376; 
norn)al  school  at,  397 

Nueva  Ecija,  42 

Nueva  Viscaya,*72,  73 

Number  of  islands,  20 

Observatory  of  Manila,  123,  128,  129 
Occupation  by  the  British,  80,  82 
Oceanica,  27 

Official  Guide  of  the  Philippines,  127 
Opinions  of  the  Filipino  :  by  a  sol- 
dier, 273  ;  by  General  Otis,  286, 
287  ;  by  General  MacArthur,  287  ; 
by  Governor  Taft,  288,  289  ;  by 
General  Hughes,  291  ;  by  a  native 
physician,  292 ;  by  English  resi- 
dents, 293,  294 


Opposition  to  the  friars,  84 

Oranges,  180 

Origin  of  Spanish  words  in  dialects, 
88,  89 

Otis,  General :  opinion  of  native  char- 
acter and  political  capacity,  286, 
287;  military  governor,  347,  348 

Outcome  of  American  efforts,  295 

Pacific,  19 

I'acific-China  sea  watershed,  21,  22 

Pacification  of  Islands  by  Legaspi, 
56,  58 

Paco  cemetery,  223,  224 

Painting,  283 

Palawan  :  area,  20  ;  mountains,  24  ; 
uniting  Philippines  with  archi- 
pelago, 26 ;  commercial  geography, 
199 

Paluia  brava,  182 

Palms,  182 

I'ampanga  :  river,  43,  1G7  ;  province, 
75,  107,  239 

Pampangaus,  239,  256,  258 

Panay :    area,    20 ;    mountains,    24 
seismic   centers,    36 ;    rivers,    43 
commercial  geography,  197,  198 
language,  239  ;  political  condition, 
341 

Panay  river,  43 

Pandita,  304,  305 

Pangasinan,  province,  42,  66,  76, 
239 

Pangasinanes,  238,  256,  258 

Paragua.     See  Palawan 

Participation  of  Filipinos  in  the  gov- 
ernment, 353,  354,  358,  361 

Pasig  river,  34,  43,  167,  205 

Paterno,  Pedro  Alejandro,  108 

Paulists,  31(5,  329 

Peace  :  of  Paris  (1763),  82  ;  of  West- 
phalia, 380 

Peaceful  character  of  the  people, 
272,  273 

Pearls,  184 

People  :  Spanish  influence,  227,  228 ; 
population,    230,   231  ;    languages, 


INDEX 


423 


231,  232  ;  distribution,  232  ;  com- 
position, 233-241,  263,  204;  char- 
acter of  Filipino,  285.  See  Chap- 
ters IX,  X,  and  XI 

Personal  adornment,  fondness  of,  283 

Personal  rights,fundamental, wan  ted, 
345 

Pessimism,  151,  152 

Petition  to  emperor  of  Japan,  106 

Philip  II,  king  of  Spain,  54,  70,  92, 
204,  310 

Philippine  Assembly,  352,  353,  372 

Philippine  Catholic  Churcli,  334 

Philippine  Commissions:  first,  112, 
343,  344,  345;  second  (see  Taft 
Commission) 

Philippine  constabulary,  bureau  of, 
357 

Philippine  problem,  1-5,  7,  14 

"Philippine  Republic,"  114 

Philippines:  situation,  19;  area,  10, 
20  ;  points  of  union  with  Asiatic 
archipelago,  20,  27  ;  volcanic  ori- 
gin, 27;  climate,  28;  discovery,  by 
Magellan,  51  ;  dependency  of  a 
dependency,  03  ;  and  Mexico,  03  ; 
commercial  position,  200,  201 

Philological  facts,  study  of,  in  con- 
nection with  Spanisli  colonization, 
90 

Pina,  180,  186 

Pineapple,  180 

Pintados,  238 

Pirates,  Moro,  84 

Plehn,  Prof essor  Carl  C,  quoted,  231 

Poisoning  of  wells,  158 

Polavieja,  Governor  General,  107 

Police,  96 

Political  dependence,  5 

Polygamy,  271,  310 

Ponies,  219 

Pope  Alexander  VI,  47 

Population,  230-232,  263,  264 

Portugal  and  Spain,  46,  47,  55,  56 

Position  of  the  Filipino  woman,  275 

Posts,  bureau  of,  357 

Precautions  against  climate,  144-146 


Precipitation,  129,  131-130 

Presbyterians,  335 

President  I^liot,  quoted,  14 

President  McKinley,  347 

President  Koosevelt,  0 

Presidents,  348 

Pressure,  atmospheric,  128,  129 

Prickly  heat,  148 

Primary  instruction,  395 

Primary  schools,  Spanish  system  of, 
377,  378,  379 

Princijmles,  338 

Printing,  bureau  of,  359 

Processions,  224,  225,  318 

Proclamations  by  Aguinaldo  :  first, 
113;  second,  114 

Products,  109-178 

Protectorate,  113 

Protestants,  225,  335 

Provincial  government :  in  Spanish 
times,  342  ;  under  American  rule, 
360-305 

Provincials  of  the  monastic  orders, 
312 

Public  health  :  bureau  of,  355 ;  labo- 
ratories, 359.     See  Chapter  VI 

Public  lands,  bureau  of,  356 

Pueblo,  232 

Pulangui  river,  26 

Racial  antipathy,  261 

Racial  composition,  58,  59,  60,  23.3- 
241 

Racial  divisions  of  the  people,  233 

Railroad,  106 

Rains,  130-130,  164 

Rainy  season,  134 

Rattan,  188,  196 

Rats,  156,  193 

Readiness  for  self-government,  275 

Rebellion  of  1719,  79 

Recoletos,  77,  328 

Reforms,  95,  98,  108,  342-345 

Religion  :  Negritos,  290,  297;  Igorots, 
297,  298  ;  certain  primitive  tribes, 
298-304,  306,  307;  Moros,  304, 
305 ;   Filipinos  before  the  coming 


424 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


of  the  Spaniards,  o07,  308.     See 

Chapter  XII 
Religious  activity,  76,  313 
Keligious  ideas  among  the  Igorots, 

245 
Religious  instruction,  92,  311,  313 
Religious  liberty,  345 
Remontados,  230 
Representation   in   Spanish   Cortes, 

85,  86,  94 
Residence  in  the  tropics,   effect  of, 

144 
Resources,  12,  13 
Respect  for  learning,  381 
Revolts,  96 
Rice,  109,  175,  176 
Rinderpest,  165,  192 
Rio  Agno,  42 

Rio  Grande  de  Cagayan,  40,  42,  44 
Rio  Grande  de  la  Mindanao,  44 
Rio  Grande  de  la  Pampanga,  43 
Rivera,  Governor  General,  107,  110 
Rivers :  Luz6n,  40-43  ;   Panay,  43  ; 

Negros,    44 ;    Mindanao,    44  ;    as 

highways,  40,  107 
Rizal,    Dr.    Jose,    98,    99-105,   244, 

270,  284 
Rizal  Orchestra,  285 
Roads,  97,  168 

Roman  Catholicism,  335,  330 
Roman  Catholics,  290 
Rombl(5n,  mountains  of,  22 
Route  of  Magellan,  49,  50,  51 
Royal  decree"  of  1589,  70,  71 
Royal    delegate    sent    from    Spain, 

80 
Royal  court  of  justice,  73 
Rubber,  176 
Ruiz,  monk,  71,  72 

Sabians,  307 

Sabo,  51 

Salcedo,  56,  66,  68 

Sakais,  242 

Salaries,  226,  351,  352,  385,  386,  388, 

396,  400 
Silmals,  237 


Samar :  area,  20  ;  mountains,  24  ; 
seismic  centers,  34 ;  rivers,  43 ; 
name,  54  ;  uprisings,  74  ;  revolt  of 
1049,  75  ;  commercial  geography, 
196,  197 

Sanchez,  Alonzo,  70 

Sanitation  and  hygiene:  need  of  im- 
provement in,  154,  155  ;  common 
principles  of,  enforced,  157,  158  ; 
in  Manila,  212  ;  of  the  home,  232 

San  Ignacio,  375 

San  Juan  de  Letran,  375 

San  Lazarus  islands,  52,  54 

San  Lucas,  port  of  Seville,  50 

San  Mateo,  100 

San  Miguel,  monk,  72 

Sanquin,  26 

Santa  Ana,  captured,  68 

Santa  Catalina,  375 

Santa  Isabel,  375 

Santa  Rosa,  375 

Santo  Tomas,  375 

School  system,  free  public,  10  ;  or- 
ganization of,  394 

Schoolhouses,  378,  379,  385,  380,  392 

Schools  established  by  religious  bod- 
ies, 77,  78 

Schurman  Commission,  112,  343-345 

Scientific  study  of  the  Filipino  race, 
228 

Seasons,  125,  143 

Seat  of  general  government :  Cebu, 
50  ;  Iloilo,  50 ;  Manila,  50 

Sebu.     See  Cebu 

Secondary  schools,  394,  402 

Secretary  of  public  instruction,  394 

Seismological  disturbances,  laws  of, 
33,  34 

Seismo-meteorological  service,  34 

Seismology,  33-38 

Self-government,  5,  6,  295,  345 

Self-sacrifice,  examples  of,  157 

Seminaries,  theological,  370 

Serrano,  48,  49 

Servants,  218 

Sexual  morality,  271 

Share  in  offices  of  the  government,  87 


INDEX 


425 


Shipbuilding,  190 

Shower  bath,  158 

Slam,  200 

Siao,  king  of,  72 

Siassi,  237 

Sierra  Erapinada,  24 

Sierra  Madre,  22 

Signal  corps,  army,  1G8 

Silver,  184 

Silversmithing,  100,  283,  284 

Sinamay,  180 

Situation,  19 

Slavery,  71,  91,  248,  250,  251,  310 

Sleep,  161 

Sloan,  Robert  J.,  M.D.,  quoted,  150 

Smallpox,  153,  165,  214 

Smoking  mountains,  30 

Society  in  Manila,  220,  221,  222 

Soil,  164,  233 

Sorsogdn,  province,  22 

Soul,  conception  of,  310 

South  Caraballo.    See  Carahallos  Sur 

Spain  and  Portugal,  46,  47,  55,  56 

Spain's  conquest,  justification  of,  13 

Spaniards  and  Filipinos,  9 

Spanish  code  of  law,  96,  97 

Spanish  colonization,  339 

Spanish  domination,  11,  13,  16,  87- 

91,  95,  227,  274 
Spanish  education,  11,  96 
Spanish  influence,  1,  2,  60,  01,  87- 

89,  226,  227,  275 
Spanish  legislation, character  of , 85, 86 
Spanish-Mestizos,  259,  294,  295 
Spanish  officials,  strife  between,  70 
Spanish  revolution,  95 
Spanish  system  of  schools,  379,  380 
Spanish  words  in  common  use  in  the 

different  dialects,  88,  89 
Spice  islands,  46,  48 
Spiders,  149,  193 
Sports,  221 

Statue  of  Sebastian  del  Cano,  284 
Stockings,  159 
Storms,     123.      See     Cyclones    and 

Typhoons 
Straits  of  Magellan,  50 


Straits  Settlements,  200 

Subanos,  236 

Submarine  ranges,  22 

Sugar,  169,  173-175,  198 

Sulu :  tributary  to  Borneo,  68 ; 
troubles  with,  73  ;  uprisings,  74  ; 
sultan  of,  200,  251-253 

Sulu  archipelago,  26,  200,  296 

Sulus,  237 

Sumatra,  27,  28 

Summer  capital,  153,  154 

Sumoroy,  leader  of  revolt  in  Samar,  75 

Sunda  islands,  27 

Superior  advisory  board  of  educa- 
tion, 385,  394 

Superstition,  62,  315 

Superstitions:  among  Negritos,  296; 
among  Igorots,  297  ;  among  certain 
other  primitive  tribes,  298-304 ; 
among  Moros,  305 ;  among  Christian 
natives,  305-310.    See  Chapter  XII 

Supreme  Court,  71 

Surgeon  general,  report  of,  on  health 
of  American  soldiers,  154 

Surra,  165,  219 

Taal,  22,  32,  33,  34,  36 

Taf  t  Commission :  report  on  public 

health,   152,   153;  report  on  friar 

question,  329  ;   appointment,  348  ; 

work,  349,  350 ;  enlarged,  351 
Taft,  William  H.,  civil  governor,  7, 

8,  119,  288,  289,  330,  348,  350 
Tagalogs,    60,    238,    239,    250,    257, 

258,  278,  405 
Tagalos.    See  Tagalogs 
Tagaytay  range,  22,  30 
Tagbanuas,  236,  299 
Taking  of  Manila,  111,  340 
Talut,  26 
Tarlac,  42 

Tavera.     See  De  Tavera 
Tawi  Tawi,  237 
Tayabas,  province,  22,  83 
Telegraphs,  168 
Telephones,  108 
Temperature,  125-128 


426 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Ternate,  54 

Text-books:  Spanish,  378,  370; 
American,  381,  385,  386,  388 

Ticao,  22 

Tic-Balan,  301 

Tlk-tih,  308 

Timber,  13,  181-184 

Tinguianes,  300 

Tirurays,  23G 

Tobacco,  83,  m,  100,  171-173 

Tornadoes,  132,  130 

Towns,  distribution  of  people  in,  232 

Trade,  78.    See  Ciiapter  VII 

Trade  school,  304,  398 

Trades,  coniniun,  188,  100 

Trading  early  carried  on  between 
Boriiese,  Japanese,  and  Chinese,  02 

Treaty  :  of  Tordesillas,  48  ;  of  Biac- 
na-batd,  108;  of  Paris,  111,  118 

Tribute :  rate,  collection,  and  distri- 
bution, 71 ;  fixed  by  Legaspi,  58 

Turks,  ascendency  of,  after  conquest 
of  Constantinople,  40 

Typhoons,  123,  124,  120,  105 

United    States   Philippine   Commis- 
sioners, 6,  7,  8,  9 
Uprisings,  74,  75,  83 

Value  of  archipelago,  Spanish  view 

of,  93 
Vargas,  Governor  General,  83 
Variation  of  temperature,  small,  120 
Vegetation,  28 ;  cause  of  humidity, 

129 
Vigan  :  bishop  of,  .'!12  ;  episcopal  seat 

of,  370  ;  normal  school  at,  307 
Villalobos,  54 


Vines,   Father,   director  of   Havana 

Observatory,  140 
Visayan  islands,  22 
Visayans,  00,  237,  238,  230,  250,  257, 

258,  341 
Visayas,  75.     See  Visayan  islands 
Volcanic  belt,  27,  28 
Volcanic  eruptions,  75 
Volcanic  origin,  27,  28 
Volcanoes  :    influence,  20 ;   number, 

20 ;  distribution,  34-38 
Voting  privilege,  0 

AVar  between  United  States  and 
Spain,  110,  111 

Water  buffaloes,  02,  105,  102 

Water  for  drinking,  148,  149 

Weatlier  Bureau :  seat  of,  20 ;  organ- 
ized, 350,  357 

Weaving,  art  of,  early  acquired,  01 

Winds,  120,  130,  130,  137 

Woman  in  economic  affairs,  275 

Wood  carving,  lUO,  283 

Woods,  182 

AVorcester,  Dean  C. :  quoted,  144, 
234 ;  appointed  member  of  second 
Philippine  Commission,  348 ;  be- 
comes head  of  the  department  of 
the  interior,  351 

Wright,  Luke  E.,  348,  351 

Writing,  early  known,  01 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
225 

Zambales  :  province,  20  ;  range,  22 
Zamboanga,  20,  237 ;  normal  school 
at,  397 


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